THE  LIBRARY 

OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELLS 


. 


-^ 


BOOKS  ON  EDUCATION 

BY 

SAMUEL  CHESTER  PARKER 

Professor  of  Educational  Methods  in 
The  University  of  Chicago 


The  History  of  Modern  Elementary 
Education      8vo,  505  pages 

Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools 

(Revised  Edition)     8vo,  529  pages 

Exercises  for  "  Methods  of  Teaching 

in   High    Schools  "      (Revised    Edition) 
8vo,  261  pages 

General    Methods    of   Teaching    in 
Elementary  Schools    (Revised  Edition) 

8vo,  336  pages 

Types  of  Elementary  Teaching  and 
Learning     8vo,  585  pages 


a    o. 

O       w 

s  * 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


BY 
SAMUEL  CHESTER  PARKER 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATIONAL  METHODS  IN 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


REVISED  EDITION 


BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  •  COLUMBUS  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  1920,  BY  SAMUEL  CHESTER  PARKER 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 

5*5-3 


fltbtnaum 


GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


Education 
Library 


DEDICATED  TO 

PROFESSOR  T.  L  FEENEY 

TEACHER  AND  INSP1RER  OF  YOUTH 

AND  TO  HIS  ASSOCIATES  IN  THE 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOL  OF  CINCINNATI 

FROM  1894  TO  1898 


1288841 


PREFACE 

This  textbook  applies  to  high-school  instruction  the  same 
general  principles  that  have  been  applied  so  frequently  and 
fruitfully  to  the  consideration  of  elementary-school  methods. 
It  contains  some  of  the  materials  used  by  the  author  in  his 
classes  in  educational  methods  for  prospective  high-school 
teachers.  Sometimes  his  classes  contain  both  prospective 
elementary  and  high-school  teachers.  At  such  times,  after  a 
general  principle  of  method  has  been  discussed,  applications 
are  made  to  both  elementary  and  high-school  teaching, 
because  practically  every  general  principle  of  method  does 
apply  in  both  places.  Inasmuch  as  the  line  between  elemen- 
tary and  secondary  (or  adolescent)  education  should  probably 
be  drawn  at  about  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age,  the  illus- 
trations given  in  this  volume  will  apply  in  many  cases  to  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  as  well.  It  is  the  intention  to 
issue  a  companion  volume  which  will  follow  the  same  general 
lines  as  this  one,  but  will  draw  its  illustrations  from  the 
elementary  grades  proper;  namely,  from  the  kindergarten 
through  the  sixth  grade. 

The  scientific  basis  for  part  of  the  discussion  in  the  book 
is  found  in  modern  experimental  psychology.  This  is  partic- 
ularly the  case  in  the  discussion  of  certain  aspects  of  learning 
which  have  been  subjected  to  extensive  laboratory  investiga- 
tion, such  as  motor  learning  and  practice.  In  other  cases,  where 
experimental  data  are  not  available,  I  have  relied  on  author- 
itative, analytical  discussions  such  as  Professor  Dewey's 
"  How  We  Think." 


viii  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  author's  general  point  of  view  has  been  determined 
by  a  number  of  influences.  The  first  factor  was  four  years' 
experience  as  a  pupil  and  one  as  a  teacher  in  the  Technical 
School  of  Cincinnati,  a  private  manual-training  high  school 
which  exemplified  in  its  instruction  the  efficient  and  pro- 
gressive application  of  many  of  the  most  important  princi- 
ples of  method.  The  second  factor  was  a  year's  training  in 
general  and  experimental  psychology  and  education  under 
Professor  C.  H.  Judd.  The  third  set  of  influences  included 
studies  under  Professors  John  Dewey  and  E.  L.  Thorndike  of 
Columbia  University.  The  latter's  textbook,  entitled  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Teaching"  (1905),  has  been  especially  influential, 
since  I  have  used  it  as  a  basis  of  discussion  in  my  classes  for 
nine  years.  The  final  factor  in  determining  the  preparation 
of  this  textbook  was  the  opportunity  given  me  to  teach  the 
courses  in  the  subdivision  of  Educational  Methods  in  the 
Department  of  Education  at  The  University  of  Chicago.  It  is 
the  function  of  this  subdivision  of  the  department  to  discuss 
and  investigate  problems  of  method  or  classroom  procedure 
at  all  stages  of  schooling. 

In  general  the  author  takes  the  point  of  view  that  effi- 
ciency and  economy  in  instruction  are  facilitated  by  (i)  radi- 
cally adapting  all  instruction  to  contemporary  social  needs, 
(2)  basing  methods  of  instruction  on  sound  psychological 
principles  which  have  been  determined,  as  far  as  possible, 
experimentally,  and  (3)  applying  principles  of  scientific  busi- 
ness management  to  the  conduct  of  all  teaching.  The  first 
of  these  standards  eliminates  processes  that  have  no  direct 
social  value ;  the  second  eliminates  waste  of  effort  resulting 
from  the  use  of  uneconomical  and  ineffective  methods  of 
learning ;  the  third  eliminates  waste  of  time  which  results 
from  failure  to  standardize  materials  and  processes. 


PREFACE  ix 

In  order  that  this  volume  may  serve  to  introduce  students 
to  the  great  body  of  practical  educational  literature  that  is  now 
available,  and  may  initiate  habits  of  consulting  such  material, 
especially  as  it  appears  in  current  periodicals,  I  have  quoted, 
wherever  possible,  from  worthy  discussions  of  the  topics  under 
consideration  and  have  suggested  that  the  students  follow  up 
the  topics  more  fully  in  the  sources  that  I  have  used. 

I  am  indebted  to  a  number  of  my  colleagues  in  The  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  for  suggestions  and  criticisms.  Of  these, 
Professors  J.  F.  Bobbitt,  F.  N.  Freeman,  R.  L.  Lyman, 
and  Mr.  W.  S.  Gray  read  and  criticized  certain  chapters  or 
parts  of  chapters  ;  Professor  Harvey  Carr  made  a  number 
of  suggestions  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  learning 
processes ;  and  Mr.  A.  F.  Barnard,  Mr.  E.  R.  Breslich,  and 
Miss  Lydia  Schmidt,  of  the  University  High  School,  have 
contributed  a  number  of  practical  examples.  For  permission 
to  reproduce  illustrations  from  various  sources  I  am  indebted 
to  a  number  of  authors  and  publishers  whose  names  are  noted 
in  the  list  of  illustrations  and  in  the  body  of  the  text. 


EXERCISES   FOR  "METHODS  OF 
TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS" 

A  problem-solving  method  in  a  social  science.  — A  volume  of  sup- 
plementary material  is  issued  under  the  above  title  for  use  in  college 
and  university  classes  that  have  the  "  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High 
Schools  "  as  a  textbook.  This  supplementary  volume  contains  a 
complete  scheme  of  assignments  and  problems  for  class  discussion 
which  have  been  developed  in  the  author's  classes  in  The  University 
of  Chicago.  Thus  it  is  an  example  of  the  recent  movement  to 
organize  problem-solving  methods  in  the  social  sciences,  of  which 
education  is  one.  The  problems  give  the  students  practice  in  inter- 
preting the  discussions  of  the  text  and  in  actually  applying  these  to 
the  solution  of  real  problems  of  teaching. 

New  source  material,  readings,  and  bibliographies. —  Since  many  of 
the  exercises  contain  new  source  material,  such  as  lesson  plans,  lan- 
guage lessons  for  teaching  English  to  foreigners,  poems,  lists  of  read- 
ings of  high-school  pupils,  pictures,  cartoons,  etc.,  the  volume  also 
serves  as  a  book  of  sources  and  supplementary  readings.  The  bibli- 
ographies have  been  enriched  by  the  addition  of  recent  publications. 

Assignments  for  term  papers,  outlines,  summaries,  and  directions 
for  study.  —  Another  element  in  the  "  Exercises  "  is  found  in  the 
detailed  assignments  for  three  term  papers  based  on  (i)  an  analy- 
sis of  recent  high-school  textbooks,  (2)  recent  practical  articles  in 
educational  magazines,  and  (3)  each  student's  own  efforts  to  apply 
the  course  to  his  own  specific  problems  as  a  teacher.  Finally,  out- 
lines, summaries,  and  directions  for  study  are  distributed  through 
the  book  to  aid  students  in  securing  a  coherent  grasp  of  the  prob- 
lems of  teaching  in  high  school. 


PREFACE  TO  THE   REVISED   EDITION 

The  printing  of  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing in  High  Schools  "  has  given  the  author  an  opportunity 
to  make  a  number  of  slight  but  important  revisions.  Some 
of  these  are  necessitated  by  new  scientific  investigations, 
while  others  are  merely  improvements  in  the  examples  or  the 
phrasing.  References  have  also  been  inserted  to  the  supple- 
mentary volume,  "  Exercises  for  '  Methods  of  Teaching  in 
High  Schools,'  "  which  will  assist  instructors  and  students 
in  using  both  books.  With  the  abundant  new  material  in 
the  "  Exercises  "  and  the  changes  in  the  "  Methods,"  the 
texts  give  the  reader  the  benefit  of  the  most  recent  discov- 
eries and  discussions  in  the  field  of  methods  of  teaching  in 
high  schools.  The  fundamental  organization,  however,  has 
nowhere  been  changed,  hence  instructors  who  have  be- 
come accustomed  to  teaching  the  "  Methods  "  and  "  Exer- 
cises "  may  continue  to  use  the  same  coherent  outline  which 
these  have  provided.  The  instructor  who  is  interested  in 
noting  important  changes  may  compare  the  following  pages 
in  the  new  and  old  editions  :  1 30,  an  improved  Gouin  series ; 
155-158,  memorizing  by  parts;  178,  civic  problems;  212, 
217,  225,  226,  steps  in  acquiring  abstract  ideas;  347,  value 
of  emulation;  391,  400,  402,  supervised  study  for  poor 
pupils ;  517,  observation  directions. 

In  the  author's  "  General  Methods  of  Teaching  in  Ele- 
mentary Schools  "  (Ginn  and  Company,  1919)  a  number  of 
the  general  topics  of  the  present  text  are  treated  with  special 
reference  to  elementary-school  teaching.  In  some  of  the 


xii  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

chapters  of  the  "  General  Methods,"  notably  those  on  broad- 
ening purposes  and  individual  differences,  certain  general 
matters  have  been  treated  in  fuller  detail  than  in  the  present 
text  and  additional  facts  presented  which  relate  equally  to 
elementary  and  high-school  teaching. 

Recent  discussions  by  the  Society  of  College  Teachers  of 
Education  suggest  the  strong  desirability  of  requiring  of  col- 
lege juniors  or  seniors  who  expect  to  teach  in  high  schools 
a  distinct  course  dealing  with  the  methods  of  classroom 
instruction  as  distinguished  from  the  more  general  historical 
and  administrative  problems  dealt  with  in  the  older  omnibus 
courses  in  secondary  education.  For  several  years  it  has 
been  our  conviction  in  The  University  of  Chicago  that  such 
practicaldiscussions  of  classroom  methods  outweigh  in  impor- 
tance and  practical  value  for  prospective  high-school  teachers 
the  more  general  omnibus  discussions.  Hence  it  has  been  our 
practice  to  require  of  such  teachers  the  course  in  Methods 
of  Teaching  in  High  Schools  and  to  permit  them  to  elect, 
if  they  so  desire,  other  courses  dealing  with  the  history, 
psychology,  and  administration  of  secondary  education. 

S.  C.  PARKER 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION  — SCOPE  OF  THE  BOOK 

PAGE 

Possibility  of  applying  general  principles  to  high-school  instruction     .  i 

Principles  based  on  scientific  evidence  and  expert  opinion 3 

Bibliographical  note 4 

CHAPTER   II 
BROADENING  PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 5 

Necessary  for  teachers  to  appreciate  purposes 5 

Suggestions  from  historical  development  of  high-school  purposes    .    .  7 

Aristocratic  versus  democratic  purposes 7 

Liberal  versus  vocational  purposes 13 

Theoretical  formulation  of  broader  purposes 16 

Ultimate  and  proximate  aims  outlined 16 

Bibliographical  notes 23 

CHAPTER  III 
ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 25 

Teacher  should  avoid  misdirected  time  and  energy 26 

Routinize  mechanical  aspects  ;  use  judgment  in  variable  aspects ...  26 
Reasoning  and  individuality  may  have  same  place  in  well-routinized 

school  as  in  social  life 27 

Begin  right  the  first  day 31 

Economy  in  handling  materials.    Large  savings  from  slight  variations  .  34 

Proper  ventilation  and  lighting  conserve  energy 41 

Good  order  an  important  time-saver 43 

Bibliographical  notes 49 

xiii 


xiv  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER 

PAGE 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 50 

Widespread  interest  in  selection  and  arrangement 52 

Subject  matter  should  be  adapted  to  varying  social  needs 53 

Social  needs  vary  historically  ;  subject  matter  should  vary  accordingly  55 

Needs  vary  between  different  communities 60 

Needs  vary  between  different  groups  in  same  community 65 

Determination  of  relative  values  of  subject  matter 67 

Intensive  treatment  of  a  few  large  topics 72 

Many  supporting  details  necessary  in  intensive  study 76 

Organization  in  terms  of  the  learner  versus  organization  in  terms  of 

the  subject 78 

Reconstruction  of  first-year  mathematics 81 

Reconstruction  of  science  courses 85 

Logical  quality  of  reconstructed  courses 90 

Bibliographical  notes 93 

CHAPTER  V 
TYPES  OF  LEARNING  INVOLVED  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  SUBJECTS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 95 

Special  methods  based  on  types  of  learning .95 

Five  types,  or  aspects  outlined 96 

CHAPTER  VI 
ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 98 

Motor  control  important  in  various  activities 98 

Questions  of  method  involved 99 

Learning  to  juggle  balls  a  typical  example  of  experimentation    .    .    .  100 

Other  investigations  illustrating  trial  and  error 102 

Empirical  discussions  in  gymnastics 108 

Musical  technique 1 1 1 

Learning  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language 114 

Tentative  answers  to  questions  of  method 118 

Bibliographical  notes 120 


CONTENTS  xv 
CHAPTER  VII 

ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS:   LEARNING 

A  FOREIGN  VOCABULARY  pAGE 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 122 

Predominant  process  in  foreign-language  instruction 122 

Types  of  association  in  reading  and  speaking  a  foreign  language  .    .  1 24 

Possibilities  of  indirect  more  obvious  than  of  direct  method    ....  126 

A  ready  made  direct  method  necessary  for  inexperienced  teachers    .  129 

Modifications  of  Gouin  system  among  the  best 130 

Objective  oral  lessons  primarily  preparatory  to  reading 135 

Supplementary  cautions 138 

Bibliographical  notes 140 

CHAPTER  VIII 

PRACTICE  OR  DRILL 

AUTOMATIZING  MOTOR  AND  MENTAL  ASSOCIATIONS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 142 

Automatizing  should  follow  correct  start 142 

Examples  of  experimental  investigations 144 

Aspects  of  economical  learning 147 

Influence  of  emotional  tone 147 

Zeal  and  concentration  of  attention  make  practice  effective    ....  149 

Correct  recall  in  memorizing  involves  concentration 153 

Is  memorizing  by  wholes  better  than  by  parts  ? 154 

Drill  on  real  process;  do  not  waste  time  on  accessories 158 

Distributed  practice  better  than  continuous  practice 162 

Empirical  discussion  of  practice  on  the  piano 164 

Bibliographical  notes 166 

CHAPTER  IX 
REFLECTIVE  THINKING 

PROBLEM-SOLVING.   ACQUIRING  ABSTRACT  AND  GENERAL  MEANINGS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 169 

SECTION  ONE.    PROBLEM-SOLVING 

May  be  required  in  other  subjects  than  mathematics  and  natural 

science , 170 


xvi  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Problem-solving  is  an  important  activity  in  social  life 176 

Nature  of  mental  activity  in  problem-solving 180 

Assisting  pupils  to  solve  problems 185 

Defining  the  problem 185 

Stimulating  fertility  of  suggestion 187 

Critical  evaluation  of  suggestion 193 

Verifying  by  further  evidence  and  by  testing  inferences 196 

Organizing  the  material  of  thought 198 

Summary  of  suggestions  for  guiding  reflective  thinking 199 

Four  types  of  opportunities  for  students  to  reason 200 

SECTION  TWO.    ACQUIRING  ABSTRACT  AND  GENERAL  MEANINGS 

Plays  a  large  part  in  high-school  instruction 205 

General  questions  concerning  best  methods  to  use 212 

Untutored  method  of  learning  may  contain  suggestions  .    .     .    .     .    .  212 

School  expedites  process  and  stresses  technical  meanings      .    .    .    .  214 

May  expedite  by  intensive  study  of  a  few  typical  examples    .    .    .    .  214 

Particular  personal  experiences  a  necessary  basis  for  abstractions  .    .  217 

Exact  definitions.   Not  necessary  in  all  thinking 220 

Get  the  meaning  first,  then  add  the  symbol 224 

Summary  of  principles  of  teaching  abstract  and  general  meanings      .  225 

Generalizations  aid  in  solving  personal  and  social  problems    ....  226 

Bibliographical  notes 230 


FORMING  HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 232 

Emotional  aspect  uppermost  in  the  consideration 233 

Widespread  recognition  of  need  of  training  to  enjoy  leisure  ....  234 

Participation  in  sports  and  games.    Chances  for  all 235 

Social  activities 236 

Music.  Two  possibilities :  participation  and  listening 238 

Meaning  of  enjoyment  is  clear ;  of  appreciation,  vague 242 

Confusing  understanding  and  enjoyment  common  in  teaching  litera- 
ture     

No  necessary  connection  between  good  art  and  good  morality   .    . 
Study  of  literature.    Introduced  in  high  school  from  classical  stand- 
point    253 

English  teachers  rapidly  adapting  methods  to  social  needs      ....  254 


CONTENTS  xvii 


Teacher  must  know  what  is  adapted  to  students      259 

Difficult  to  avoid  snap  courses  in  reading  for  enjoyment 262 

Enjoyment  of  drama 263 

Bibliographical  notes 267 

CHAPTER  XI 
TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 269 

An  important  issue  in  all  classes 270 

Emphasize  expression  of  everyday  matters 271 

Make  sure  that  students  have  vital  content  to  express 272 

English  teacher  needs  broad  experience,  training,  and  point  of  view.  277 

Motive  for  expression  furnished  by  real  audience 278 

Require  students  to  have  clear  ideas  to  express 280 

Student  must  get  point  of  view  of  audience 281 

How  to  avoid  snap  courses  in  oral  expression 285 

Training  in  expression  best  secured  in  content  subjects 287 

General  principles  of  expression  apply  to  drawing 291 

Bibliographical  notes 294 

CHAPTER  XII 

f 

SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 296 

Self-activity :  student  is  educated  by  his  own  responses 296 

Self-activity  in  various  types  of  learning 297 

Student's  words  often  unreliable  evidence  of  his  mental  activity  .  .  299 
Apperception:  response  determined  by  past  experience  and  present 

frame  of  mind 300 

All  instruction  must  be  adapted  to  experience  and  development  of 

students 303 

Influence  of  present  frame  of  mind 304 

Teacher  must  put  students  in  proper  frame  of  mind 307 

Bibliographical  notes 312 

CHAPTER  XIII 
INFLUENCE   OF  AGE   ON   LEARNING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 314 

Do  students  at  different  ages  vary  in  ability  to  learn 314 

Acquiring  motor  skill;  maintain  that  adolescence  is  as  favorable    .    .  315 


xviii  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Learning  a   foreign   vocabulary.    Maintain  that   later  years  are  as 

favorable 318 

Some  reasons  for  prevalence  of  contrary  opinion y.z 

Changes  with  age  in  reasoning  processes 326 

Reasoning  abilities  of  children  demonstrated  by  Bonser 326 

Arguments  for  contrary  opinion  refuted 328 

Same  point  of  view  applied  to  training  in  enjoyment  and  expression .  332 

Bibliographical  notes 335 


CHAPTER  XIV 
INTERESTS,  THE   BASIS  OF  ECONOMY   IN   LEARNING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 336 

Intensive  application  necessary  for  economical  learning 336 

Best  secured  by  utilizing  student's  active  interests 337 

Interest  and  attention ;  spontaneous  and  forced  attention 341 

Instinctive  spontaneous  attention 344 

Important  instincts  used  as  a  basis  of  attention  and  interest   ....  348 

Habitual  attention 358 

Teachers  must  study  interests  of  high-school  students 360 

Bibliographical  notes 361 


CHAPTER  XV 

ADAPTING  CLASS  INSTRUCTION  TO   DIFFERENCES 
IN  CAPACITY 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 362 

Class  instruction  needs  supplementing  to  suit  individuals 362 

Historical  development  of  individual  and  class  instruction 363 

Interest  stimulated  by  statistical  demonstrations  of  differences  and 

waste 367 

Typical  experiments 379 

Abolishing  all  class  instruction 379 

Self-conducted  homogeneous  groups 381 

Recitations  only  for  students  who  need  them 384 

Required  supervised  study  periods       387 

Bibliographical  notes 389 


CONTENTS  xix 
CHAPTER  XVI 

SUPERVISED  STUDY 

PAGE 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 391 

Supervised  study  should  partially  replace  recitations  and  home  study.  391 

Teachers  fail  to  appreciate  students'  difficulties 393 

Measured  results  show  superiority  of  supervised  study 397 

Divided  periods  provide  for  required  supervised  study  in  high  schools  .  402 

Physical  conditions  should  suggest  study 403 

Form  habits  of  going  through  the  motions  of  studying 405 

Concentrated  studying  must  be  secured  through  interest 409 

Routinized  directions  to  students  to  assist  in  studying 411 

Special  technique  to  be  used  by  teacher  in  supervising  study  .    .    .    .  412 

Bibliographical  notes 417 

CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  USE  OF  BOOKS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 418 

Four  sources  of  subject  matter 419 

Reflective  reading  of  books  a  most  important  social  process  ....  420 

Textbooks.  Exercise  care  to  select  well-constructed,  appropriate  ones  .  42 1 
Supplementary  reading.  Provide  definite  assignments  to  sufficient 

duplicates 425 

Reports  based  on  independent  investigations  of  assigned  topics. 

Special  technique  of  administering 428 

Bibliographical  notes 435 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


Main  points  of  the  chapter 436 

Conversational  method  works  over  student's  previous  experiences  .     .  436 

Exploited  by  American  Herbartians 439 

Criticism  of  eliciting  everything  by  questions 441 

The  Socratic  method  a  circuitous  form  of  conversational  method  .     .  442 

Much  better  to  tell  some  things  than  to  waste  time 446 

Legitimate  uses 447 

Bibliographical  notes 448 


xx  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER  XIX 

LABORATORY  METHODS 

PAGE 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 449 

Laboratory  methods  may  secure  information,  reflective  thinking,  and 

skill 449 

Exercise  care  in  selecting  laboratory  manual 451 

Adapt  laboratory  exercises  to  broader  social  needs 455 

Economy  would  often  justify  substitution  of  lecture  demonstration  .    .457 

Avoid  highly  specialized  forms  of  motor  skill 458 

For  reflective  thinking,  laboratory  exercises  must  grow  out  of  problems  459 

Freely  merge  discussion,  laboratory  exercises,  and  interpretation  .    .  460 

Bibliographical  notes 463 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 465 

Rapid  adaptation  required  of  teacher  in  skilled  questioning 466 

Recitation  as  a  place  for  group  progress  determines  technique  .    .    .  468 

Rapid  pace  for  drill  questions ;  slow  pace  for  thought  questions  ...  471 

Repetition  in  questioning 472 

Bibliographical  notes 474 


CHAPTER  XXI 
PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  LESSON-PLANNING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 475 

Practice  teaching  with  adolescent  pupils  to  be  provided 475 

Apply  general  principles  of  practice 477 

Routinized  scheme  for  administering  practice  is  desirable 479 

Herbartian  formal  steps  a  favorite  routine  device 480 

Mimeographed  scheme  of  directions  to  be  followed  in  planning      .    .  483 

Departure  from  plan  while  teaching 4^7 

Sample  routine  directions  to  practice  teachers  and  supervisors  .    .    .  488 

Bibliographical  notes 491 


CONTENTS  xxi 
CHAPTER  XXII 

MEASURING  THE   RESULTS  OF  TEACHING 

PAGE 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 492 

Measurement  of  results  show  whether  purposes  are  achieved  .  .  .  492 
Routine  testing  by  the  teacher.  Avoid  extremes  of  overemphasis  and 

neglect 493 

Precautions  to  assure  commensurable  results 496 

Measuring  various  types  of  learning .  497 

Methods  of  grading 500 

Comparative  measures  of  different  classes  and  methods.  Recent 

enthusiasm 502 

Judgments  of  science  made  reliable  by  special  technique 504 

Scales  of  measurement  being  developed  in  various  subjects  ....  508 

Bibliographical  notes 511 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 512 

Observation  essential  to  show  applications  of  theory 512 

Suggestive  outlines  for  observing  pupils  and  teaching 515 

Bibliographical  notes 522 

INDEX 523 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  Illinois  .  .  Frontispiece 
The  Boston  Latin  Grammar  School,  founded  1635.  From 

Monroe's  "  History  of  Education  " 4 

High-school  building  of  the  H-type 43 

Readjusted  academy  at  Colebrook,  New  Hampshire.  Courtesy  of 

Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 61 

Colebrook  Academy  boys  learning  to  use  separator.  Courtesy  of 

Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 63 

Colebrook  boys  making  Babcock  milk  test.  Courtesy  of  Mr.  H. 

A.  Brown 64 

Colebrook  class  securing  samples  of  soil  at  different  depths. 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 65 

A  lesson  in  the  greenhouse  at  Colebrook  Academy.  Courtesy  of 

Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 66 

Apparatus  used  by  Dearborn  for  experimenting  upon  mirror 

writing 104 

Star  traced  while  watching  its  reflection.  After  Dearborn  .  .  .  105 
Kinetoscopic  pictures  used  in  Gilbreth's  motion  study  to  increase 

skill  of  artisans.    From  photographs  furnished  by  Mrs.  F.  B. 

Gilbreth 107 

Jerry  Travers's  hold  for  putting  in  playing  golf 109 

Stages  in  performing  the  kip  on  a  horizontal  bar no 

Incorrect  and  correct  positions  of  little  finger  in  playing  the  piano  1 1 3 
Curves  showing  effects  of  nine  months  of  practice  in  learning 

telegraphy.    After   Bryan   and   Harter,   from   Thorndike's 

"Educational  Psychology" 145 

A  French  school  about  1628,  illustrating  punishment  for  errors  in 

recitation.     From  Cubberly's  "  Syllabus  of  the  History  of 

Education " 349 

A  French  school  before  1789,  illustrating  method  of  individual 

instruction.    From  Cubberly's  "  Syllabus  of  the  History  of 

Education " „  363 


xxiv  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

PAGE 

Curves  showing  abilities  in  observing  misspelled  words  and  think- 
ing of  the  opposites  of  words.  From  Thorndike's  "  Principles 
of  Teaching" 373 

Normal-frequency  surface  and  curve  of  distribution.  From  Thorn- 
dike's  "  Individuality  " 376 

Curves  showing  abilities  in  remembering  digits  and  in  reaction 

times.  From  Thorndike's  "  Educational  Psychology "  .  .  377 

Four  types  of  laboratory  notebooks.  Reproduced  by  permission 

from  the  School  Review 451-453 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 

In  periodicals.  —  All  prospective  high-school  teachers  should 
form  the  habit  of  reading  regularly  the  educational  periodicals 
which  deal  with  general  problems  of  high-school  instruction  or  with 
the  teaching  of  special  subjects  in  high  school.  These  periodicals 
are  full  of  practical  suggestions  and  put  the  reader  in  touch  with 
the  most  progressive  methods  of  teaching.  Students  should  be 
required  to  prepare  select  bibliographies  of  articles  dealing  with 
the  teaching  of  special  subjects  in  which  they  are  interested  and  to 
present  oral  or  written  reports  on  a  few  of  the  articles. 

The  following  periodicals  are  especially  helpful : 

1 .  The  School  Review,    Published  by  The  University  of  Chicago 
School  of  Education.   The  best  journal  devoted  to  general  problems 
of  high-school  organization  and  instruction. 

2.  The  English  Journal.   Published  by  The  University  of  Chicago 
Press. 

3.  The  History  Teachers'  Magazine.   Published  by  the  McKinley 
Publishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

4.  School  Science  and  Mathematics.    Published  by  Smith  and 
Turton,  Mount  Morris,  Illinois. 

For  other  journals  of  less  general  interest  than  those  named 
above,  plus  an  assignment  of  a  report  to  be  based  on  practical 
reading  in  such  periodicals,  see  "  Exercises  for  '  Methods  of 
Teaching  in  High  Schools,'"  p.  £71. 


KEY  TO   BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES 

The  books  from  which  quotations  are  made  in  the  text  are 
included  in  the  bibliographies  which  are  printed  at  the  ends  of  the 
chapters.  The  source  of  each  quotation  is  indicated  (usually  at  its 
end)  by  two  figures  in  parenthesis.  The  first  figure  refers  to  the 
book  by  its  number  in  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  the  chapter, 
and  the  second  figure  refers  to  the  page.  Thus,  (4 :  76)  means 
page  76  in  the  fourth  book  in  the  chapter  bibliography.  This 
system  has  been  adopted  in  order  that  the  instructor  or  student 
may  verify  or  follow  up  any  quotation,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
ordinary  reader  will  not  be  distracted  by  numerous  footnote  refer- 
ences which  are  unimportant  in  his  reading. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION  — SCOPE  OF  THE  BOOK 

Purpose.  —  The  purpose  of  this  textbook  is  to  introduce 
students  to  a  study  of  the  principles  which  underlie  instruc- 
tion in  high-school  subjects.  Hence  it  is  concerned  primarily 
with  the  work  of  classroom  teachers  and  only  incidentally 
with  the  curriculum  and  organization  of  high  schools. 

Possibility  of  applying  general  principles  to  high-school  in- 
struction.— The  principles  which  underlie  methods  of  teach- 
ing have  been  discussed  very  thoroughly  in  many  excellent 
books  from  the  standpoint  of  elementary  schools,  but  there 
have  been  relatively  few  books  which  have  performed  the 
same  service  for  high-school  methods  in  general.  A  similar 
contrast  exists  between  the  large  number  of  books  dealing 
with  high-school  organization  and  the  small  number  dealing 
with  high-school  methods  in  general. 

This  situation  is  partially  due  to  the  fact  that  the  methods 
of  teaching  in  high  schools  may  vary  greatly  with  the  nature 
of  the  subjects  taught.  Striking  examples  of  this  variation 
are  found  in  the  problems  of  method  involved  in  teaching 
manual  training,  a  foreign  language,  and  geometry.  Each  of 
these  subjects  has  peculiar  problems  of  method  different 
from  those  in  the  other  subjects.  In  the  case  of  many  high- 
school  subjects  there  is  no  lack  of  discussion  of  these  special 


2  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

methods.  Thus  we  have  numerous  books  dealing  with  the 
teaching  of  English,  history,  mathematics,  and  the_  sciences 
in  high  schools,  but  few  discussions  of  general  methods  of 
high-school  instruction. 

Moreover,  it  has  been  generally  assumed  that  all  that  a 
high-school  teacher  needs  in  order  to  be  successful  is  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  his  subject  matter  plus  the  ability  to  make 
pupils  behave.  Persons  who  have  held  this  point  of  view 
have  often  been  willing  to  admit  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  method  may  improve  the  work  of  teachers  in 
kindergartens  and  in  elementary  schools,  but  they  have  held 
that  such  pedagogical  considerations  could  contribute  little  to 
the  improvement  of  high-school  teaching. 

There  are,  however,  many  phases  of  high-school  teaching 
in  which  general  principles  of  method  play  as  important  a 
part  as  they  do  in  elementary  school  work.  In  the  chapters 
that  follow,  an  endeavor  will  be  made  to  demonstrate  this 
fact  in  detail. 

Main  topics  to  be  discussed.  —  The  principal  topics  which 
will  be  taken  up  are  the  following : 

1 .  The  purposes  to  be  attained  by  high-school  instruction. 

2.  The  importance  of  economy  in  classroom  activity;  the 
attaining  of  a  given  purpose  with  the  minimum  of  time  and 
energy. 

3.  Standards  determining  the  selection  and  arrangement 
of  subject  matter  within  a  given  subject ;  that  is,  what  to 
teach  and  how  to  organize  it. 

4.  The  most  economical  and  effective  methods  of  learning 
to  be  employed  in  different  subjects. 

5.  How  to  stimulate  pupils  to  learn  most  economically, 
that  is,  with  effective  concentration  of  energy. 

6.  Provisions  for  individual  differences  in  class  instruc- 
tion, so  that  each  pupil  may  advance  at  a  pace  suited  to  his 
capacities. 

7.  Supervision  of  study  to  eliminate  misdirected  effort. 


INTRODUCTION  —  SCOPE  OF  THE  BOOK          3 

8.  The  most  effective  use  of  various  sources  for  enriching 
pupils'  experiences,  involving  a  consideration  of 

(a)  Books  as  sources  ;  recitation  and  reference  methods. 
(b}  The  pupils'  own  objective  experiences,  both  present 
and  past,  as  sources  ;  laboratory  and  conversational  methods. 

9.  The  planning  of  instruction  to  assure  that  definite  and 
valuable  experiences  are  to  be  provided. 

10.  The  testing  of  teaching,  as  a  check  to  determine  how 
effectively  the  purposes  have  been  attained. 

1 1 .  The  observation  of  teaching,  to  show  the  practical 
applications  of  educational  theory. 

Principles  based  on  scientific  evidence  and  expert  opinion. 
—  In  the  discussions  which  follow,  it  will  be  possible  in  some 
cases  to  present  well-established  scientific  conclusions  as  the 
theoretical  basis  of  the  principles  under  consideration,  and  to 
indicate  how  the  latter  have  been  carried  out  in  successful 
practice  in  typical  high  schools.  In  other  cases,  however, 
there  may  be  no  stronger  evidence  in  favor  of  the  principles 
advocated  than  the  opinions  of  some  of  the  best-informed 
thinkers  about  education  who  have  written  since  the  time  of 
John  Locke  (1632-1704).  These  opinions  may  not  be  valid, 
but  the  chances  are  that  they  are  nearer  the  truth  than  the 
opinions  of  persons  who  have  not  devoted  considerable  study 
to  pedagogical  problems.  In  any  case,  they  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing  the  student  to  the  problems,  and  prepare 
him  to  appreciate  and  perhaps  contribute  to  the  more  valid 
experimental  determination  of  the  best  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, which  promises  to  play  such  a  large  part  in  future 
educational  endeavor. 

Observations  of  classes  should  supplement  study  of  the 
text.  —  In  order  to  relate  the  discussions  in  each  chapter  to 
practical  situations,  instructors  who  are  using  the  text  and 
have  facilities  for  observation  should  utilize  the  directions 
given  in  Chapter  XXIII.  Observations  should  be  required 
early  in  the  course,  in  order  to  furnish  students  with  fresh 


4  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

concrete  examples  of  the  general  principles  under  discussion. 
The  suggestions  provided  by  the  author  may  be  modified  to 
suit  local,  needs,  but  in  every  case  it  is  desirable  to  provide 
the  observers  with  definite  questions  or  points  upon  which 
observations  and  subsequent  discussions  may  be  based. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE 

PARKER,  S.  C.  The  Present  Status  of  Education  as  a  Science  in 
the  Field  of  Methods.  SchoolReviewMonographNo.il.  (University 
of  Chicago  Press,  1912.)  Pp.  135-150. 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  I,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp. 


THE  BOSTON  LATIN  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL,  FOUNDED  1635 

From  Monroe's  "  History  of  Education."    The  contrast  between  this  simple  build- 
ing in  the  yard  of  King's  Chapel  and  the  magnificent  Chicago  high  school  shown 
in  the  frontispiece  is  paralleled  by  a  similar  contrast  in  the  aims  and  curricula  of 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  seventeenth  and  twentieth  centuries 


CHAPTER  II 

BROADENING  PURPOSES   OF  HIGH-SCHOOL 
INSTRUCTION 

To  the  student.  —  At  the  beginning  of  each  chapter  will 
be  found  a  brief  statement  of  its  main  points.  This  should 
be  read  in  order  to  get  a  general  notion  of  what  is  to  come, 
but  need  not  be  learned  until  the  chapter  is  finished,  when 
it  may  be  studied  as  a  summary  of  the  chapter.  The  peda- 
gogical value  of  reading  these  summaries  is  stated  in  the 
quotation  from  Herbart  on  page  307  of  this  text. 

Main  points  of  the  chapter i.  It  is  important  that  high-school 

teachers  should  have  a  clear  understanding  of  high-school  purposes, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  plan  their  instruction  to  best  advantage. 

2.  Historically,  secondary  schools  have. changed  from  institu- 
tions for  a  few  select  students  to  institutions  that  train  many  types 
of  boys  and  girls  for  many  vocations. 

3.  Along  with  the  broadening  of  the  vocational  training  pro- 
vided in  high  schools  has  come  a  broadening  of  the  conception 
of  a  liberal  education  to  include  a  sympathetic  understanding  of 
contemporary  civilization. 

4.  The  broad,  ultimate  aims  of  high-school  instruction  include 
social  efficiency  (economic,  domestic,  and  civic),  good  will,  and  the 
harmless  enjoyment  of  leisure  time. 

5.  The  more  detailed  or  immediate  aims  of  instruction  include 
health,  information,  habits,  ideals,  and  abiding  interests. 

Necessary  for  teachers  to  appreciate  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion. —  One  of  the  most  striking  developments  in  recent 
educational  history  is  the  rapid  change  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  prevailing  conceptions  of  the  purposes  of  high-school 

5 


6  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

education.  This  change  of  conception  affects  not  only  the 
curriculum  and  organization  of  the  high  school,  but  it  affects 
also  very  vitally  the  individual  teacher  in  the  teaching  of  his 
particular  subject.  If  the  purposes  of  the  whole  institution 
are  modified,  it  follows  naturally  that  the  purposes  and 
methods  within  the  individual  subjects  must  often  be  modi- 
fied accordingly.  The  importance  of  this  fact  is  not  always 
realized  by  teachers  and  administrators,  with  the  result  that 
many  maladjustments  arise. 

Poor  adjustments  result  from  different  purposes  of  adminis- 
trators and  teachers.  —  For  example,  an  administrative  officer 
may  try  to  reform  a  system  of  schools,  or  a  single  school, 
without  first  gradually  and  carefully  initiating  the  teachers 
into  the  spirit  and  purpose  of  the  reforms.  As  a  conse- 
quence the  teachers  go  on  in  their  old  ways  or  strive  more 
or  less  blindly  and  ineffectually  to  readjust  themselves.  The 
resulting  strain  and  stress  commonly  bring  about  numerous 
resignations,  sometimes  including  that  of  the  administrator 
who  has  tried  to  institute  the  reforms.  A  most  striking 
example  of  such  a  situation  occurred  in  one  of  our  American 
systems  toward  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century.  An  ad- 
ministrator who  failed  to  put  through  his  reforms  because  of 
failure  to  get  his  purposes  understood  was  succeeded  by  a 
man  who  had  the  same  purposes  but  who  started  to  put  them 
into  effect  by  a  gradual  and  careful  education  of  the  other 
workers  in  the  system  into  an  understanding  of  his  ideas. 
His  efforts  were  characterized  by  complete  success,  in  striking 
contrast  with  the  failure  of  his  predecessor. 

Extreme  differences  of  opinion  exist  concerning  high-school 
purposes.  —  A  high-school  teacher  going  into  a  new  situa- 
tion would  do  well  to  inform  himself  concerning  the  concep- 
tions of  purpose  which  prevail  in  the  situation  in  question. 
Owing  to  the  rapid  change  that  has  been  taking  place,  there 
exist  at  the  present  time  the  most  radical  differences  of 
opinion  concerning  purposes.  These  extreme  differences  are 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION        7 

sometimes  found  between  high  schools  within  the  same  city,1 
and  commonly  center  in  the  antithesis  between  cultural  and 
vocational  purposes,  or  in  the  antithesis  between  aristocratic 
and  democratic  purposes.  In  order  to  provide  a  better  under- 
standing of  these  disagreements,  we  shall  consider  briefly 
the  historical  evolution  of  secondary  schools,  of  which  our 
present  type  of  high  school  is  the  most  recent  development. 
History  of  high-school  purposes.  Aristocratic  vs.  demo- 
cratic.—  Aristocratic  or  selective  purpose  in  Latin  gram- 
mar schools  (1500-1750). — The  fact  that  the  secondary 
schools  were  originally  selective  and  hence  more  or  less  aristo- 
cratic in  purpose  is  well  illustrated  from  the  writings  of  Martin 
Luther  (1483-1 546),  who,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  active 
in  stimulating  the  organization  of  both  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary schools.  The  selective  purpose  of  the  latter  as  schools 
to  train  leaders  is  well  set  forth  in  the  following  quotation : 

I  hold  it  to  be  incumbent  on  those  in  authority  to  command 
their  subjects  to  keep  their  children  at  school;  for  it  is,  beyond 
doubt,  their  duty  to  ensure  the  permanence  of  the  above-named 
offices  and  positions,  so  that  preachers,  jurists,  curates,  scribes, 
physicians,  schoolmasters,  and  the  like  may  not  fail  from  among 
us ;  for  we  cannot  do  without  them.  .  .  .  Wherefore,  let  magis- 
trates lay  these  things  to  heart,  and  let  them  keep  a  vigilant  look- 
out; and,  wherever  they  see  a  promising  lad,  have  him  pledged 
at  school. 

The  elementary  school  was  to  be  for  all  children,  according 
to  Luther,  but  it  was  the  "  promising  lads  "  with  whom  the 
secondary  school  was  to  be  chiefly  concerned.  In  England 
and  America  these  secondary  schools  were  known  as  Latin 
grammar  schools. 

Practical  value  of  grammar  schools  decreased  with  decline 
of  Latin.  —  Though  the  curriculum  of  the  Latin  grammar 

1  See  the  School  Review,  November,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  585-595,  and 
October,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  559-563,  for  a  discussion  between  two  New 
York  City  high  schools. 


8  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

schools  included  practically  only  instruction  in  Latin  and 
sometimes  Greek,  they  were  not  originally  so  limited  in  the 
practical  value  of  the  training  they  afforded  as  they  came  to 
be  after  the  seventeenth  century ;  for  down  to  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  (1558-1603)  Latin  was  used  as  a  practical 
instrument  in  reading,  studying,  and  social  intercourse  by 
nearly  all  educated  people.  After  the  seventeenth  century, 
however,  the  modern  languages  very  largely  replaced  the 
Latin  for  general  purposes,  and  the  latter  remained  of  prac- 
tical value  for  only  a  few  select  classes,  including  professors, 
ministers,  lawyers,  and  physicians.  Hence  the  Latin  gram- 
mar school  became  even  more  narrowly  selective  and  aris- 
tocratic in  character  than  before.  Speaking  of  this  situation 
in  the  American  colonies,  and  of  the  persistence  of  aristo- 
cratic traditions,  Brown  writes  as  follows  in  his  work  on 
"The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools": 

In  this  state  of  society,  no  public  secondary  school  seems  to 
have  been  even  thought  of  for  the  great  body  of  citizens  —  the 
middle  or  lower-middle  class.  It  was  thought  desirable  that  all 
should  know  how  to  read.  And  a  college  training  was  needed  by 
members  of  the  directive  class.  The  secondary  school  [however] 
was  not  a  mean  between  these  extremes,  but  rather  an  institution 
subsidiary  to  the  college ;  that  is,  a  preparatory  school  in  the  nar- 
rower sense.  Promising  youth,  whatever  their  social  station,  were 
encouraged  to  go  to  school.  But  their  education  was  a  preparation 
for  a  place  in  an  upper,  that  is,  a  ruling  or  at  least  a  directing, 
class.  (5:  108) 

Academies  organized  to  meet  democratic  and  economic 
needs  (I/^O-lS^O).  —  As  the  Latin  grammar  school  be- 
came more  and  more  remote  from  the  needs  of  practical 
life,  and  as  democratic  conditions  and  new  economic  needs 
grew  apace  in  the  American  colonies  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  there  developed  a  demand  for  a  type  of  secondary 
school  that  would  provide  training  for  various  practical  pur- 
suits. The  outcome  was  the  establishment  of  the  academies, 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION       9 

the  best  early  example  being  Benjamin  Franklin's  Academy, 
opened  in  Philadelphia  in  1751.  By  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  these  institutions  were  very  numerous.  While 
they  commonly  taught  Latin,  they  also  provided  instruction 
in  English,  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  geography,  sur- 
veying, and  other  subjects.  They  were  quite  flexible  in  their 
organization,  permitting  students  to  enroll  and  study  with 
considerable  freedom.  In  many  cases  they  received  public 
support.  Although  the  college-preparatory  course  was  the 
backbone  of  most  of  them,  they  did  not  fail  to  provide  in  a 
very  large  measure  for  a  practical  type  of  higher  education 
which  the  democracy  needed. 

Increased  democratic  needs  met  by  public  high  schools 
(1821}.  —  During  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, however,  the  need  for  more  public  institutions  to  meet 
the  general  demands  for  practical  secondary  education  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of  what  we  now  know  as  high 
schools,  although  they  were  often  called  free  academies  when 
first  established.  The  first  of  these  schools  was  opened  in 
Boston  in  1821  and  took  the  name  English  High  School 
in  1824.  Its  purposes  as  providing  an  extension  upwards  of 
the  work  of  the  English  grammar  grades  and  as  a  public 
counterpart  of  certain  aspects  of  the  private  academy  are 
suggested  in  the  following  quotation  from  the  report  of  the 
Boston  school  committee  of  1821  : 

The  mode  of  education  now  adopted  and  the  branches  of 
knowledge  that  are  taught  at  our  English  grammar  schools  are 
not  sufficiently  extensive  nor  otherwise  calculated  to  bring  the 
powers  of  the  mind  into  operation  nor  to  qualify  a  youth  to  fill 
usefully  and  respectably  many  of  those  stations,  both  public  and 
private,  in  which  he  may  be  placed.  A  parent  who  wishes  to  give 
a  child  an  education  that  shall  fit  him  for  active  life,  and  shall 
serve  as  a  foundation  for  eminence  in  his  profession,  whether 
Mercantile  or  Mechanical,  is  under  the  necessity  of  giving  him  a 
different  education  from  any  which  our  public  schools  now  furnish. 


10  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Hence  many  children  are  separated  from  their  parents  and  sent 
to  private  academies  in  this  vicinity  to  acquire  that  instruction 
which  cannot  be  obtained  at  the  public  seminaries.  (5  :  299-300) 

Practical  purposes  later  subordinated  to  training  for  college 
entrance.  —  Similar  quotations  from  the  records  concerning 
other  early  high  schools  indicate  the  same  general  character- 
istics ;  that  is,  they  provided  an  extension  upward  of  the 
general  work  of  the  elementary  school.  They  were  not  es- 
sentially college-preparatory  schools,  but  were  planned  to 
give  training  for  those  who  would  go  directly  into  "  Mer- 
cantile or  Mechanical  "  pursuits.  This  direct  and  practical 
aim  became  subordinated  later  to  the  college-preparatory  aim 
which  has  dominated  the  high  schools  until  recently. 

Recent  recognition  of  needs  of  pupils  not  going  to  college. 
—  In  the  last  few  years  there  has  developed  a  strong  tend- 
ency among  high-school  administrators  to  formulate  aims 
and  organize  courses  of  study  in  high  schools  for  the  large 
numbers  of  students  who  do  not  expect  to  go  on  to  college. 
So  strong  has  this  movement  become  that  at  least  one  of 
the  leading  universities  of  the  country,  in  recognition  of  the 
reasonableness  of  this  policy,  has  so  changed  its  entrance  re- 
quirements as  to  permit  practically  any  high-grade  graduate 
of  any  well-organized  and  well-conducted  high  school  to  enter 
its  freshman  class. 

It  will  probably  be  only  a  matter  of  a  few  years  before  public 
high  schools,  at  least  in  the  large  towns  and  cities  and  in  the 
more  prosperous  rural  districts,  will  be  considered  as  schools 
to  which  students  go  primarily  for  the  same  reason  as  they 
go  to  the  elementary  schools,  namely,  to  secure  training  that 
will  prepare  them  directly  for  more  effective  participation  in 
the  life  of  the  communities  in  which  they  live. 

Commissioner  of  Education  anticipates  high-school  educa- 
tion for  all.  —  This  tendency  is  discussed  in  the  following 
news  letter  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion in  1912  : 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      II 

The  American  High  School  has  grown  phenomenally  in  the 
past  dozen  years,  its  development  in  the  last  two  or  three  years 
being  apparently  greater  than  in  the  remarkable  decade  just  pre- 
ceding. Since  the  twentieth  century  opened,  the  number  of  public 
high  schools  has  almost  doubled,  and  the  number  of  students  is 
easily  twice  what  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The 
most  cheering  feature  of  the  whole  matter  for  the  American  citi- 
zen is  the  very  great  increase  in  the  proportion  of  those  who 
go  from  the  grades  into  the  high  school.  Formerly  (only  a  very 
few  years  ago,  in  fact)  the  high  school  was  chiefly  attended  by 
children  of  the  rich  and  moderately  well-to-do.  To-day  nearly 
one  fourth  of  the  children  who  enter  the  elementary  school  even- 
tually pass  into  the  high  school.  The  exact  figure  is  22  per  cent 
if  negro  children  are  included  and  25  per  cent  if  whites  only 
are  considered. 

The  people  have  shown  their  appreciation  of  their  high  school 
in  the  most  direct  way  possible  —  by  supporting  it  unfailingly  and 
generously.  They  have  faith  enough  in  it  to  pay  huge  sums  of 
money  year  after  year  that  the  high  school  may  do  greater  and 
greater  work.  More  and  more  attention  is  being  paid  to  high- 
school  education.  Million-dollar  school  buildings  are  going  up 
in  American  cities  —  palaces,  one  might  call  them,  did  not  the 
word  suggest  idleness,  and  there  is  no  idleness  in  the  present- 
day  high  school.  Industry,  technical  ability,  home-making,  together 
with  the  essentials  of  a  cultural  education,  are  being  taught  to 
our  boys  and  girls  in  the  splendid  high  schools  of  to-day  on  a 
scale  that  was  never  dreamed  of  in  the  civic  life  of  any  nation 
before  our  time. 

This  statement  is  in  striking  contrast  with  Luther's  sug- 
gestion to  be  on  the  lookout  for  "  promising  lads  "  for  the 
secondary  schools,  and  with  the  idea  of  training  and  select- 
ing leaders  that  prevailed  in  the  Latin  grammar  schools  in 
England  and  in  the  American  colonies. 

Example  of  a  high-school  policy  adapted  to  all  children. 

-The  notion  of  "  high-school  training  for  all  children  "  is 

especially  emphasized  in  some  of  the  vocational  and  the 

cosmopolitan  high  schools.    The  following  quotation  is  an 


12  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

extreme  example  taken  from  a  report  (1911)  by  the  high- 
school  teachers  of  the  Washington  Irving  High  School  for 
Girls  in  New  York  City. 

WHAT  WE  ARE  FOR 

The  community  sends  its  children  to  us  expecting  them  to  be 
educated.  It  raises  money  and  pays  it  to  us  in  order  that  the  city 
may  be  uplifted.  The  parents  who  support  us  do  not  subscribe 
to  the  theory  that  a  high  school  is  an  institution  for  preserving  a 
course  of  study,  or  maintaining  a  system  of  usages,  or  keeping  up 
a  high  standard,  or  training  some  youngsters  to  be  leaders,  or  for 
supporting  us.  The  people  who  are  supporting  us  care  little  for 
these  things.  They  do  care  for  children.  They  pay  for  having  the 
young  people  trained,  not  for  maintaining  a  given  grade  of  educa- 
tion. They  send  us  bright,  stupid,  industrious,  lazy,  well-behaved, 
Anpudent  children,  not  with  the  idea  that  we  shall  teach  those  that 
are  able  and  willing  to  work,  not  for  a  decision  that  such  a  child 
is  not  fit  for  high  school,  but  for  having  each  child  improved. 
This  is  not  chiefly  a  place  for  those  who  can  succeed  without  help. 
Such  need  us  less  than  the  others  do.  A  public  high  school  differs 
from  an  elementary  school  chiefly  in  the  age  of  its  children.  We 
are  not  elected,  we  are  not  paid,  to  train  leaders ;  .  .  .  everyone, 
rich  or  poor,  is  entitled  to  our  services.  A  child  may  be  poor  in 
brains,  in  effort,  in  appreciation,  in  gratitude,  in  respect,  in  all 
which  we  may  have  been  taught  to  regard  as  high-school  neces- 
sities. Such  a  one  belongs  here.  Our  inherited  high-school  theory 
may  not  accord  with  this.  If  so,  the  theory  must  disappear. 
Scholarship  is  not  our  chief  business.  Training  the  children  we 
receive  and  securing  more  children  to  train  is  our  business.  The 
grade  of  scholarship  which  best  trains  our  membership  is  the  grade 
we  want.  This  is  not  a  fixed  standard.  It  is  one  thing  in  1910, 
another  in  1911.  The  chairmen  of  departments  will  keep  it  high 
enough ;  we  need  not  worry  about  that.  .  .  . 

We  came  into  this  school  from  many  localities.  Some  of  us 
studied  much  algebra ;  some,  German ;  others,  Latin.  We  never 
studied  New  York  children.  We.  must  study  them,  —  their  previous 
schooling,  their  home  surroundings,  their  mental  characteristics,  — 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      13 

for  the  purpose  of  making  our  algebra,  German,  or  Latin  of  bene- 
fit to  them.  We  are  to  break  away  from  the  traditional  type  of  a 
study-centered  high  school.  We  are  a  person-centered  high  school. 
The  person  is  the  one  we  are  teaching.  We  are  responsible  for 
the  success  of  the  student.  That  is  chiefly  what  we  are  put  here 
for.  (10:  585) 

While  certain  critics  may  take  exception  to  the  creed  set 
forth  in  this  quotation,  it  remains  in  general  as  a  significant 
formulation  of  a  policy  worked  out  by  a  high-school  principal 
and  his  teachers  to  adapt  the  instruction  in  their  school  to 
the  needs  of  all  of  the  pupils  who  attend  it. 

Antithesis  between  liberal  and  vocational  purposes.  —  The 
immediately  preceding  discussion  was  intended  to  bring  out 
the  contrast  between  the  aristocratic,  or  selective,  purposes 
which  formerly  prevailed  in  secondary  education  and  the  dem- 
ocratic purposes  which  are  coming  to  prevail.  The  other  con- 
trast (mentioned  above  on  page  7)  is  between  the  conception 
of  liberal  purposes  and  that  of  vocational  purposes.  Ordi- 
narily it  is  assumed  that  there  is  some  conflict  between  these 
two,  and  the  conservative  supporters  of  the  old  idea  of  a  liberal 
education  deprecate  the  tendency  to  introduce  and  emphasize 
studies  which  are  related  to  present-day  economic  needs. 

Progressive  revision  of  -meaning  of  a  liberal  education.  — 
The  insistence  of  the  conservatives  upon  the  old  idea  of  a 
liberal  education  as  necessarily  a  classical  or  literary  one  has 
led  advocates  of  a  broader  secondary  education  to  reformulate 
the  definition  of  a  liberal  education  in  such  a  way  as  to  justify 
the  newer  tendencies  and  thus  to  disarm  the  conservatives  by 
depriving  them  of  their  chief  symbol,  or  badge,  of  pretended 
superiority.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  this  revision  is  the 
following  quotation  from  a  paper  by  Professor  E.  P.  Cubberly 
on  the  question,  Does  the  present  trend  of  vocational  educa- 
tion threaten  liberal  culture  ? 

Meaning  of"  vocational"  and  "  liberal"  is  relative  to  the  individual. 
—  The  whole  question  of  what  are  liberal  and  what  are  vocational 


14  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

studies  can  be  defined  accurately  only  in  terms  of  individuals. 
What  is  vocational  for  one  is  liberal  for  another.  The  study  of 
chemistry,  for  example,  which  is  usually  classified  with  the  technical- 
vocational  group,  and  is  so  for  the  future  chemist  or  engineer,  is 
broadly  liberal  when  pursued  by  the  classical  student.  The  same 
is  true  of  geology,  biology,  economics,  or  modern  industrial  history. 
Conversely,  courses  in  literature,  world  history,  economics,  and  the 
life  and  literature  of  Greece  or  Rome  would  be  liberal  studies  to 
the  technical  or  the  scientific  student.  Perhaps  no  greater  mistake 
in  terms  is  made  in  our  educational  practice  to-day  than  to  say 
that  the  high-school  student  who  has  had  four  years  of  Latin,  three 
of  Greek,  four  of  English,  two  of  ancient  and  medieval  history, 
two  of  mathematics,  and  one  year  of  mathematical  physics  has 
pursued  a  liberal-culture  course  of  study.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
his  course  has  been  narrowly  technical,  in  that  it  leads  to  but  a 
few  selected  occupations ;  and  he  is  in  no  sense  liberally  educated, 
for  he  knows  little  about  the  modern  world  in  which  he  lives. 
Of  the  great  modifying  conceptions  which  have  served  to  dis- 
tinguish the  nineteenth  century  he  knows  almost  nothing,  and  he 
is  ill  prepared  to  take  his  place  as  an  efficient  member  of  the 
twentieth  century. 

Newer  studies  open  liberal  and  vocational  courses  to  more  students. 
—  To  the  speaker  there  seems  very  little  to  fear  and  very  much 
to  commend  in  the  present  trend  toward  vocational  training,  and 
he  cannot  see  that  the  trend  in  any  way  seriously  threatens  true 
liberal  culture.  The  introduction  of  courses  in  mechanic  arts,  com- 
merce, agriculture,  and  household  arts  will  attract  to  the  schools 
great  numbers  who  in  the  past  have  found  little  of  interest  in  them, 
and  will  offer  to  all  classes  the  chance  to  combine  vocational  training 
with  a  good  education.  To  the  speaker  it  seems  indeed  unfortunate, 
that  so  many  young  people  have  been  and  still  are  compelled  to 
choose  between  a  vocation  without  an  education  and  an  education 
without  a  vocation.  That  the  introduction  of  these  new  subjects 
will  result  in  a  decreased  percentage  of  our  young  people  studying 
Latin  and  Greek  is  not  to  be  denied.  Indeed,  it  is  much  to  be 
hoped.  This,  however,  would  be  no  blow  to  liberal  culture.  Some, 
of  course,  obtain  liberal  culture  with  such  training,  and  for  them 
it  may  be  the  best  training  possible ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  many 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      15 

do  not,  and  for  such  the  insistence  that  such  studies  are  essential 
to  liberal  training  is  no  longer  tenable. 

Modern  natural  and  social  sciences  give  broad  outlook  upon  life. 
—  If  we  conceive  of  liberal  culture  as  coming  from  a  study  of 
those  subjects  which  develop  the  judgment  and  understanding, 
enlarge  the  vision  and  insight,  broaden  the  human  sympathies, 
train  for  efficient  living,  and  stimulate  such  intellectual  ambitions 
as  will  make  one  interested  in  his  life  work  and  good  company 
for  himself,  then  liberal  culture  may  come  to  many  different  in- 
dividuals from  the  study  of  many  different  things.  A  conception 
of  the  theory  of  evolution  and  of  a  few  of  its  applications  to 
modern  life,  such  as  may  be  obtained  in  a  study  of  biology ;  the 
great  mind-expanding  (and  I  might  also  add  religion-developing) 
results  obtainable  from  a  study  of  astronomy  ;  a  fair  understanding 
of  economic  laws,  obtainable  from  a  study  of  economics  ;  the  grow- 
ing conception  of  world  relationships,  such  as  may  be  obtained 
from  a  study  of  commerce  or  industrial  history ;  the  wonderful 
results  of  modern  science,  as  opened  up  by  a  proper  study  of 
physics  and  chemistry;  the  awakening  and  refining  of  the  prac- 
tical judgment  of  the  girl,  such  as  comes  from  good  courses  in 
domestic  science  and  household  economics ;  or  a  study  of  the 
life,  manners,  art,  government,  and  literature  of  Greece  or  Rome, 
such  as  might  be  given  for  nonclassical  students,  wholly  in  Eng- 
lish, and  in  a  single  year  in  a  modern  high  school  —  any  one  or 
all  of  these  may  be  liberal  studies  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  term, 
and  the  starting  point  of  a  life  lived  in  sympathy  and  in  increasing 
contact  with  the  best  in  our  intellectual  inheritance.  Such  studies 
as  I  have  enumerated  are  both  liberal  and  vocational,  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  boy  or  girl  who  studies  them.1  (8  :  463-465) 

While  this  discussion  of  a  liberal  versus  a  vocational  educa- 
tion, as  presented  by  Professor  Cubberly,  is  concerned  primarily 
with  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school,  yet  the  general  attitude, 
or  point  of  view,  which  it  represents  would  affect  also  the  work 
of  an  individual  teacher  within  a  given  stibject.  Hence  it  is 
related  to  methods  of  teaching  as  well.  This  will  be  brought 

1  Paragraph  headings  not  in  the  original. 


16  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

out  in  detail  in  a  later  chapter  on  the  selection  and  arrangement 
of  material  within  a  given  subject. 

Theoretical  formulation  of  the  broader  purposes  of  education. 
—  In  our  discussion  of  the  broadening  conceptions  of  the  pur- 
poses of  high-school  instruction  we  have  noted  the  practical 
importance  of  the  high-school  teacher's  being  aware  of  the 
trend  of  events,  have  traced  historically  the  transition  from  the 
aristocratic  and  selective  purpose  to  the  democratic  purpose, 
and  have  noted  the  movement  to  formulate  a  revised  definition 
of  a  liberal  education  so  as  to  relate  it  to  contemporary  life. 
As  a  final  step  in  giving  students  an  appreciation  of  the 
broader  purposes  which  are  coming  to  prevail,  we  shall  dis- 
cuss briefly  a  theoretical  formulation  of  the  aims  of  teaching 
which  may  have  more  or  less  practical  bearing  on  methods 
of  teaching.  The  formulation  is  a  slight  modification  of  that 
presented  by  Professor  E.  L.  Thorndike  in  his  "  Principles 
of  Teaching"  (1906). 

Ultimate  and  proximate  aims  outlined.  —  According  to  this 
formulation  we  may  distinguish  between  the  ultimate  aims  and 
the  proximate  aims  of  teaching.  The  former  are  the  large, 
broad,  controlling  purposes  ;  the  latter  include  more  detailed 
purposes  which  contribute  to  the  achievement  of  the  former 
but  are  more  directly  related  to  the  daily  work  of  the  teacher. 
These  purposes  may  be  tabulated  as  follows : 

Ultimate  purposes  Proximate  purposes 

1.  Social  efficiency.  i.  Health. 

a.  Economic.  2.  Information. 

b.  Domestic.  3.  Habits. 

c.  Civic.  4.  Ideals. 

2.  Good  will.  5.  Interests. 

3.  Harmless  enjoyment. 

Ultimate  purposes.  I.  Efficiency  in  controlling  affairs 
in  a  social  situation.  —  The  first  of  the  ultimate  purposes, 
namely,  efficiency,  suggests  the  ability  to  do  things  effectively, 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      I/ 

to  control  and  handle  affairs,  to  get  results,  to  achieve  and 
accomplish.  The  qualifying  term  social  suggests  that  the 
things  or  affairs  that  a  person  needs  to  be  able  to  control  or 
handle  are  nearly  always  parts  or  phases  of  social  situations 
in  which  division  of  labor  and  other  forms  of  relationships 
with  people  are  controlling  factors.  The  subdivision  of  effi- 
ciency into  economic,  domestic,  and  civic  is  suggested  by 
Herbert  Spencer's  classification  of  life's  activities.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  most  persons  must  be  efficient  in  making  a  living, 
in  dealing  with  their  family  affairs,  and  in  participating  in 
civic  or  political  affairs. 

2 .  Efficiency  must  be  directed  by  good  will,  or  the  endeavor 
to  work  for  the  common  good.  —  But  efficiency  in  a  social 
situation,  or  the  ability  to  control  and  handle  affairs,  needs  to 
be  directed  toward  worthy  ends.    Hence  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  for  the  second  ultimate  purpose,  namely,  good  will, 
or  the  desire  and  endeavor  to  work  for  the  common  good ; 
for  a  man  may  be  extremely  efficient  socially,  and  yet  direct 
his  ability  toward  purely  selfish  ends  which  are  opposed  to 
the  common  good.    Unfortunately  society  is  always  troubled 
with  just  such  persons,  namely,  powerful  social  leaders  who 
use  their  efficiency  in  controlling  the  affairs  of  the  social 
group  for  corrupt  purposes.   The  corrupt  political  boss  is  one 
of  the  best  examples  of  this  type.   He  may  control  absolutely 
the  political  affairs  of  a  city  or  a  county  or  a  state  for  a  whole 
generation.    He  is  the  most  efficient  man  in  the  situation ;  it 
would  be  absurd  to  say  that  he  is  socially  inefficient ;  but  it  is 
perfectly  obvious  that  he  is  immoral  if  our  standard  of  morality 
is  the  desire  and  endeavor  to  contribute  to  the  common  good. 

3.  Efficiency  supplemented  by  training  for  the  harmless 
enjoyment  of  leisure  time.  —  But  morally  directed  efficiency 
in  handling  affairs  does  not  constitute  all  of  life.    The  proper 
enjoyment  of  one's  leisure  time  deserves  large  consideration 
in  a  scheme  of  education  for  persons  that  do  not  have  to  spend 
all  of  their  time  in  a  struggle  for  existence.    Certainly  for  a 


1 8  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

large  part  of  any  well-civilized  community  the  problem  pre- 
sented by  training  for  leisure  is  almost  as  pressing  as  the 
problem  of  training  for  efficiency.  For  example,  consider  the 
difficulties  presented  in  this  connection  in  such  a  large  city 
as  Chicago,  in  directing  the  leisure  activities  of  boys  and  girls 
between  fifteen  and  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Moreover,  as  we 
regard  the  successful  effort  of  labor  unions  and  publicists  to 
get  the  working  hours  of  employees  reduced,  it  almost  sug- 
gests that  the  reason  for  desiring  efficiency  is  to  secure  leisure  ; 
that  the  latter  is  the  final  purpose  toward  which  efficiency  is 
directed. 

Proximate  aims  relate  ultimate  aims  to  methods.  —  When 
we  come  to  consider  the  ways  in  which  these  final,  or  ultimate, 
purposes  may  be  achieved,  we  approach  the  problems  of 
method,  and  as  an  intermediate  step  we  may  consider  the  more 
immediate,  or  proximate,  purposes  to  be  achieved,  namely, 

to  give  boys  and  girls  health  in  body  and  mind,  information  about 
the  world  of  nature  and  men,  worthy  interests  in  knowledge  and 
action,  a  multitude  of  habits  of  thought,  feeling,  and  behavior,  and 
ideals  of  efficiency,  honor,  duty,  love,  and  service.  (3  :  3) 

We  shall  consider  briefly  each  of  these  proximate  aims. 

I .  Health  most  important  but  commonly  neglected.  —  The 
importance  of  'health  as  an  immediate  aim  of  instruction  is  so 
generally  appreciated  now  that  if  a  body  of  college  students 
is  asked  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  five  proximate 
aims,  they  will  commonly  answer,  "  Health."  Yet  this  is  not 
always  taken  into  consideration  in  practice,  as  shown  in  the 
following  quotation  from  an  article  entitled  "  College  Students' 
Comments  on  their  High- School  Training." 

On  no  one  point  is  there  more  unanimity  than  the  want  of  atten- 
tion to  bodily  health  and  exercise ;  not  one  has  anything  favorable 
to  say  on  this  point,  and  many  accuse  the  school  in  extenso  of  its 
dereliction  in  physical  education.  [One  student  writes :] 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      19 

"  During  the  first  three  years  I  do  not  recall  a  single  suggestion 
by  any  teacher  to  get  out  in  the  open  air  —  or  anywhere  else.  At 
noon  most  of  us  stayed  indoors  and  either  strolled  up  and  down 
some  very  dark  corridors  or  sat  at  our  desks  and  studied.  The 
self-ventilating  heating  system  was  then  in  vogue,  and  the  teachers 
had  orders  not  to  open  the  windows,  so  that  the  rooms  were  often 
stuffy  and  the  pupils  drowsy."  (11:  651) 

The  individual  teacher  of  the  ordinary  subjects  cannot  do 
much  of  a  positive  character  to  improve  the  health  of  his 
students.  Nevertheless,  he  can  keep  their  health  in  mind 
and  possibly  serve  as  a  source  of  suggestion  for  activities  that 
contribute  to  health.  Often  he  would  be  justified  in  taking 
up,  with  the  principal  of  the  school,  a  discussion  of  the  health 
of  individual  pupils.  Certainly  he  should  always  endeavor 
to  have  the  classroom  and  the  amount  and  conditions  of 
work  such  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  health  of  the  students. 

2.  Information  important,  but  its  exclusive  emphasis  to 
be  avoided,  —  Information  is  the  proximate  aim,  or  purpose, 
that  has  been  most  prominent  in  high-school  instruction. 
This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  very  easy  to  de- 
vise tests,  or  examinations,  to  determine  whether  a  student 
has  applied  himself  in  acquiring  information,  but  difficult 
to  do  so  in  the  case  of  certain  other  proximate  aims,  such 
as  interests  and  ideals.  Hence,  we  often  find  information 
emphasized  in  subjects  where  it  should  be  considered  rela- 
tively unimportant. 

As  a  result  of  this  overemphasis  we  often  find  an  extreme 
reaction  against  teaching  for  information  at  all,  which  is  just 
as  unreasonable  as  the  overemphasis  which  formerly  prevailed. 
Extensive  and  exact  information  is  an  important  factor  in 
nearly  all  efficient  social  behavior  .where  ideas  play  any  part. 
In  most  positions  there  is  no  antithesis  between  knowing 
and  efficient  doing.  But  the  other  proximate  aims — namely, 
habits,  interests,  and  ideals  —  are  also  important  factors  in 
social  behavior  and  should  not  be  neglected. 


20  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

3.  Special  and  general  habits  to  be  fixed.  —  Habits,  which 
constitute  the  third  proximate  purpose  of  instruction,  are  of 
two  kinds,  special  and  general.    Some  high-school  subjects 
provide  training  primarily  in  the  fixing  of  a  multitude  of 
special  habits.     For  example,  training  in  linguistic  expres- 
sion, either  English  or  foreign,  is  largely  of  this  sort.    Skill 
in  using  language  consists  largely  in  the  easy,  free,  habitual 
use  of  thousands  of  detailed  forms  of  expression,  each  form 
corresponding  to  a  habit.  This  will  be  brought  out  in  greater 
detail  in  a  later  chapter.    Other  examples  of  such  special 
habits  are  found  in  the  motor  skill  involved  in  laboratory  work. 
Skill  in  bending  glass  consists  in  a  multitude  of  motor  habits ; 
likewise  skill  in  making  pie  crust,  in  planing  a  board,  etc. 

Among  the  general  habits  mentioned  by  Thorndike  are 
habits  of  self-control,  accuracy,  steady  and  logical  thought, 
technical  and  executive  habits,  habits  of  being  honorable, 
courageous,  just,  sympathetic,  reverent,  and  modest.  Thorn- 
dike  himself  has  been  most  critical  of  the  possibility  of  devel- 
oping such  general  habits,  but  certainly,  to  the  extent  that  it 
is  possible  to  develop  them,  whether  they  be  special  or  general, 
it  is  desirable  to  do  so.  Thus,  it  may  be  impossible  to  develop 
a  general  habit  of  accuracy,  but  it  may  be  possible  to  develop 
one  habit  of  accuracy  in  addition  and  subtraction,  another 
habit  of  accuracy  in  verbal  description,  another  habit  of 
accuracy  in  measuring  boards,  another  habit  of  accuracy  in 
weighing  substances  in  quantitative  analysis  in  chemistry, 
another  habit  of  accuracy  in  transcribing  stenographic  notes. 
Habitual  accuracy  is  an  important  proximate  educational  aim 
in  each  of  these  cases. 

4.  Ideals  more  generalized  than  habits.  —  The  develop- 
ment of  ideals  as  a  proximate  aim  of  instruction  is  closely 
related  to  the  development  of  habits,  so  far  as  the  latter  may 
be  generalized.  Thus,  we  aim  to  cultivate  ideals  of  efficiency, 
honor,  courage,  justice,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  corresponding 
habits.    While  there  may  be  some  question  as  to  the  extent 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      21 

to  which  general  habits  may  be  cultivated,  there  is  less  doubt 
concerning  the  possibility  of  developing  general  ideals.  To 
be  sure,  it  may  not  be  possible  to  have  one  ideal  of  accuracy 
that  will  be  applied  in  all  the  cases  cited  above  under  habits 
of  accuracy ;  for  an  ideal  of  mathematical  accuracy  is  some- 
what different  from  an  ideal  of  accuracy  in  measurement, 
since  the  former  is  usually  exact,  while  the  latter  is  always 
approximate.  Moreover,  the  degree  of  desirable  approximate 
accuracy  varies  with  the  character  of  the  measurement  being 
made.  It  may  be  very  rough  in  measuring  boards  but  exact 
to  the  third  decimal  fraction  of  a  very  small  weight  in  quan- 
titative chemical  analysis.  Hence  the  carpenter's  ideal  of 
accuracy  might  be  different  from  the  chemist's.  In  spite  of 
the  specialized  character  of  certain  ideals,  however,  there  is 
little  doubt  that  there  are  many  ideals,  such  as  those  of  serv- 
ice, honesty,  promptness,  etc.,  which  are  of  very  wide  and 
general  application. 

Ideals  should  involve  belief  and  resolve,  and  lead  to  habits. 
-  In  developing  ideals  there  are  four  special  considerations 
to  be  kept  in  mind  :  In  the  first  place,  the  proximate  aim  of 
information  should  not  be  permitted  to  overshadow  the  pur- 
pose of  fixing  an  ideal  in  the  student's  character.  For  ex- 
ample, if  history  is  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  of  ideals,  the  ordinary 
method  of  teaching  so  as  to  acquire  encyclopedic  historical 
information  must  give  place  to  one  in  which  selected  social 
situations  are  dealt  with  so  concretely  and  thoroughly  as  to 
bring  out  the  human  relationships,  moral  conflicts,  and  pos- 
sible appeals  to  human  sentiment  that  are  involved.  This 
suggests  a  second  consideration,  namely,  that  an  ideal,  to  be 
of  much  practical  value,  must  not  exist  for  a  student  merely 
as  an  abstract  formula,  but  must  be  coupled  with  a  strong 
belief  in  its  validity  and  with  a  more  or  less  enthusiastic  re- 
solve to  carry  it  out  in  practice.  In  the  third  place,  students 
need  to  be  led  to  see  how  manifold  the  applications  of  the  ideal 
are  —  to  see  opportunities  for  carrying  out,  in  the  everyday 


22  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

situations  in  which  they  live,  such  ideals  as  service,  hon- 
esty, and  thoroughness.  Finally,  it  is  possible  to  provide  for 
each  of  these  three  points  and  still  have  the  ideal  remain 
without  much  practical  outcome  in  behavior.  Hence  it  is 
important  to  see  that  students  actually  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunities  and  are  required  to  behave  in  accordance  with 
the  ideals  which  have  been  established.  This  leads  back  to 
the  third  proximate  aim  in  instruction,  namely,  habits. 

5.  Abiding  interests  to  determine  students'  desires  for 
further  experiences.  —  The  fifth  proximate  aim  of  instruc- 
tion—  namely,  the  development  of  abiding,  or  permanent, 
interests  —  owes  its  prominence  historically  to  the  German 
educational  reformer  Herbart  (1776-1841),  who  introduced 
it  into  one  of  his  discussions  in  contrast  with  the  ultimate 
moral  purpose  of  education,  in  the  following  words  : 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  instruction  is  contained  in  the  notion, 
virtue.  But  in  order  to  realize  the  final  aim,  another  and  nearer 
one  must  be  set  up.  We  may  term  it  many-sidedness  of  interest. 
The  word  interest  stands  in  general  for  that  kind  of  mental  activity 
which  it  is  the  business  of  instruction  to  incite.  Mere  information 
does  not  suffice,  for  this  we  think  of  as  a  supply,  or  store,  of  facts, 
which  a  person  might  possess  or  lack  and  still  remain  the  same 
being.  But  he  who  lays  hold  of  his  information  and  reaches  out 
for  more  takes  an  interest  in  it.  Since,  however,  this  mental  ac- 
tivity is  varied,  we  need  to  add  the  further  determination  supplied 
by  the  term  many-sidedness. 

Thus  we  see  that  with  Herbart  the  most  important  proxi- 
mate aim  of  instruction  is  to  determine  and  fix  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  pupil  the  lines  of  interest  which  will  occupy 
him  in  later  life.  This  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  com- 
mon notion  of  the  purposes  of  schooling  as  represented  in  the 
senior-day  exercises  at  graduation,  when  the  students  burn 
their  books  as  an  indication  that  they  are  forever  through  with 
the  dreary  things  of  school,  and  are  happy  to  think  that  never 
again  will  they  have  such  distasteful  matters  to  deal  with. 


PURPOSES  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION      23 

Fortunately  the  studies  and  methods  in  high-school  in- 
struction are  being  so  humanized  and  related  to  the  everyday 
out-of-school  interests  of  normal  human  beings  that  the 
possibility  of  determining  and  fixing  abiding  interests  for 
pupils  is  greatly  increased.  Hence  we  may  look  forward 
to  the  day  when  most  instruction  will  result  in  the  pupils' 
"laying  hold  of  and  reaching  out  after  more"  of  the  types 
of  experiences  to  which  the  school  has  introduced  or  habitu- 
ated them. 

Relation  of  proximate  aims  to  methods  to  be  determined 
later.  —  This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  Thorndike's 
theoretical  formulation  of  the  purposes  of  education.  While 
the  ultimate  purposes — namely,  efficiency,  good  will,  and 
harmless  enjoyment  —  may  seem  to  be  somewhat  abstract 
and  to  have  little  direct  relation  to  methods  of  instruction, 
it  should  be  evident  by  this  time  that  the  proximate  aims  — 
namely,  health,  information,  habits,  ideals,  and  interests  — 
are  vital  factors  in  determining  what  methods  of  instruction 
shall  be  used  in  the  various  subjects.  This  will  be  increas- 
ingly evident  in  some  of  the  detailed  discussions  which  fol- 
low. In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  take  up  a  consideration 
of  certain  general  aspects  of  the  school  as  a  specialized 
institution  set  apart  to  achieve  as  economically  as  possible 
the  purposes  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General  statement.  —  The  bibliographical  notes  at  the  ends  of  the 
chapters  are  not  intended  to  be  at  all  exhaustive  or  complete.  They  are 
intended  to  provide  a  few  references  to  discussions  that  are  related  di- 
rectly to  the  topics  treated  in  the  chapters. 

General  discussions  of  aims  and  purposes.  —  i .  BAGLEY,  W.  C., 
The  Educative  Process.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1905.)  Pp.  40-65. 
One  of  the  best  brief  critical  discussions  of  various  aims. 

2.  SPENCER,  HERBERT.  Education,  chap,  i,  entitled  What  Knowl- 
edge is  most  Worth.  (1859.)  The  most  classic  discussion  of  educational 
aims  written  in  English  during  the  nineteenth  century. 


24  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

3.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seller,  1906.) 
Pp.  1-7. 

4.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Education.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1912.) 
Pp.  9-52.    A  very  original  discussion  of  many  aims. 

Historical  discussions 5.   BROWN,  E.  E.    The  Making  of  our 

Middle   Schools.     (Longmans,   Green    &    Co.,    1902.)    The   standard 
history  of  grammar  schools,  academies,  and  high  schools. 

6.  MONROE,  P.    Cyclopcedia  of  Education.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany,   1911.)    Articles   entitled  "Grammar    Schools,"    "Academies," 
"High  Schools." 

7.  PARKER,  S.  C.  History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education.  (Ginn 
and  Company,  1912.)    Pp.  18-23  on  decline  of  Latin.    Pp.  49-52  on 
grammar  schools  as  selective. 

Recent  discussions  of  high-school  tendencies.  —  8.  CUBBERLY,  E.  P. 
Does  the  Present  Trend  of  Vocational  Education  threaten  Liberal 
Culture?  School  Review,  September,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  454-465. 

9.  DEWEY,  J.  The  Educational  Situation.  (The  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1902.)  Pp.  50-79. 

i  o.  McANDREW,  W.,  and  others.  Success  in  School.  School  Review, 
November,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  585-595.  Extreme  statement  of  the 
idea  that  the  high  school  exists  for  the  benefit  of  its  students.  Answered 
in  School  Review,  October,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  559-563. 

n.  SISSON,  E.  O.  College  Students'  Comments  on  their  Own 
High-School  Training.  School  Review,  December,  1912,  Vol.  XX, 
pp.  649-664. 

12.  SNEDDEX,  D.  The  Opportunity  of  the  Small  High  School. 
School  Review,  February,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  98-110.  Endeavors  to 
define  in  a  practical  way  the  aims  appropriate  to  small  high  schools  as 
distinguished  from  those  of  large  schools. 

Also  referred  to  in  the  chapter. —  13.  HERBART,  F.  Outlines  of 
Educational  Doctrine.  (The  Macmillan  Company.  Originally  published 
in  1841.) 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  II,  see  Exercises  for 
"  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,'1''  pp.  E 1 7-E  22. 

For  directions  concerning  "  How  to  Study,"  see  pp.  Ei4-Ei6  and 

E23-E25- 


CHAPTER  III 

ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT 

Main  points  of  the  chapter 1.  The  school  is  a  complicated 

institution  with  large  opportunities  for  waste  and  for  economy. 

2.  To  avoid  waste,  principles  of  business  management  should 
be  applied  in  the  classroom. 

3.  Routine  is  necessary  for  efficiency  and  economizes  time  and 
energy. 

4.  Individuality,  spontaneity,  initiative,  and  reasoning  may  have 
the  same  place  in  a  well-routinized  school  as  they  have  in  demo- 
cratic social  life. 

5.  The  principal  routine  factors  are  (i)  beginning  right,  (2)  seat- 
ing of  students,  (3)  passing  to  and  from  recitations,  (4)  handling 
materials,  (5)  attention  to  physical  conditions,  (6)  preserving  order. 

Need  to  correlate  progressive  theory  and  efficient  practice. 
-  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  established  a  general  point 
of  view  concerning  the  purposes  of  high-school  instruction 
which  will  assist  us  in  judging  the  value  of  processes  of 
instruction  to  be  discussed  in  later  portions  of  the  book. 
There  is  danger,  however,  that  educational  leaders  and  stu- 
dents will  overemphasize  the  somewhat  idealistic  conceptions 
presented  in  the  preceding  chapter,  and  will  neglect  to  keep 
in  mind  the  practical  school  situation  in  which  such  theories 
have  to  be  carried  out.  This  statement  does  not  imply  that 
the  more  progressive  policies  cannot  be  carried  out  in  actual 
practice,  but  it  does  imply  that  the  success  of  progressive 
reforms  will  depend  upon  the  efficiency  with  which  reformers 
apply  principles  of  business  management  in  organizing  their 
instruction.  Consequently,  in  order  to  secure  a  proper  balance 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader  between  an  enthusiasm  for  broader 

25 


26  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

modern  ideals  in  education,  on  the  one  hand,  and  principles 
of  practical  management,  on  the  other,  this  chapter  dealing 
with  economy  in  classroom  management  is  introduced  at 
this  point. 

Teacher  should  avoid  misdirected  time  and  energy.  —  The 
school  is  a  complicated,  specialized  institution,  maintained 
by  society  to  achieve  certain  specific  results.  The  classroom 
activities  should  be  planned  carefully  to  make  sure  that  they 
are  directed  toward  securing  these  results  most  economically 
and  effectively,  and  the  possibilities  of  misdirected  time,  effort, 
and  energy  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Principles  of  business  management  should  be  applied.  — 
In  any  other  institution  or  organization  or  plant  which  is 
as  complicated  as  the  school,  efficiency  depends  to  a  large 
extent  upon  careful  attention  to  the  details  of  management. 
In  a  manufacturing  plant,  for  example,  great  care  is  taken 
to  provide  for  the  most  economic  placing  and  handling  of 
material,  so  as  to  eliminate  waste  motion.  A  manufacturer 
may  enormously  increase  the  efficiency  of  his  plant  by  in- 
venting a  device  that  will  require  fewer  operations  to  produce 
an  article,  or  will  produce  several  articles  by  the  same  num- 
ber of  operations  as  formerly  produced  but  one.  If  such 
principles  of  economy  are  important  in  factories,  where  the 
product  that  is  wasted  or  economized  is  material,  they  are 
much  more  important  in  the  school,  where  the  product  to 
be  wasted  or  economized  consists  of  human  lives.  No  fac- 
tory deals  with  such  precious  raw  material  as  does  the 
school ;  hence  in  no  other  process  is  it  so  important  to 
give  careful  attention  to  the  problems  of  waste  and  economy 
as  in  education. 

Routinize  mechanical  aspects ;  use  judgment  in  variable 
aspects.  —  The  sources  of  waste  in  classroom  work  have 
been  divided  by  Professor  Bagley  into  two  principal  types  : 
The  first  type  includes  those  where  the  waste  is  due  to  fail- 
ure to  organize  properly  certain  mechanical  aspects  of  the 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       27 

classroom  activity.  To  this  type  he  applies  the  term  routine 
factors.  The  second  type  includes  those  sources  of  waste 
which  are  due  to  failure  to  adjust  the  classroom  activities 
to  the  constantly  varying  capacities,  interests,  and  responses 
of  the  students.  To  these  aspects  of  school  work  Bagley 
applies  the  term  judgment  factors.  The  routine  factors 
include  those  matters  that  recur  in  approximately  the  same 
form  from  day  to  day  and  which  can  be  advantageously  sys- 
tematized, organized,  and  reduced  to  mechanical  habits.  The 
judgment  factors,  on  the  other  hand,  are  constantly  varying, 
and  require  of  the  teacher  constant  alert  exercise  of  judg- 
ment in  order  to  avoid  misdirected  time  and  energy. 

List  of  principal  routine  and  jiidgment  factors.  —  The 
principal  matters  to  which  attention  should  be  given  from 
the  standpoint  of  routine  are  the  following : 

1 .  Getting  started  right  the  first  day. 

2.  Seating  of  students. 

3.  Passing  to  and  from  recitations. 

4.  Handling  materials. 

5.  Attention  to  physical  conditions. 

6.  Maintenance  of  order. 

The  principal  judgment  factors  are  related  to  making  pro- 
visions for  individual  differences  in  capacities  and  securing 
concentrated  attention  in  the  right  direction.  This  chapter  will 
discuss  the  elimination  of  waste  through  proper  organization 
of  the  routine  factors.  The  judgment  factors  will  be  consid- 
ered in  several  later  chapters. 

Reasoning  and  individuality  may  have  the  same  place  in  a 
well-routinized  school  as  in  social  life.  —  Before  taking  up  a 
detailed  discussion  of  the  routine  factors,  we  shall  endeavor 
to  justify  the  "  business  conception  "  of  school-keeping  which 
has  been  outlined  above,  since,  according  to  many  idealistic 
educators,  "factory  standards "  and  "machine  processes "  have 
no  place  in  the  school.  They  use  these  words  as  terms  of 
reproach,  and  always  speak  of  the  "  ideal  school  "  in  terms  of 


28  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

freedom,  spontaneity,  initiative,  reasoning,  etc.  Their  point 
of  departure  for  emphasizing  the  latter  is  a  notion  of  demo- 
cratic society  in  which  these  elements  of  freedom  etc.  have 
unrestrained  operation.  I  shall  endeavor  to  show  that  free- 
dom, spontaneity,  individuality,  initiative,  and  reasoning 
have  the  same  place  in  a  well-routinized  school  as  they  have 
in  democratic  social  life.  This  can  be  done  to  advantage  in 
connection  with  Bagley's  answers  to  the  arguments  that  have 
been  advanced  against  routinizing  any  phases  of  school  work. 

(1  :  32) 

Democratic  social  organization  often  disregards  individu- 
ality.—  The  first  two  objections  that  Bagley  cites  and  refutes 
are  that  "mechanical  organization  disregards  the  individuality 
of  the  child  "  and  that,  since  it  is  imposed  from  without,  "  it  is 
an  expression  of  arbitrary  and  despotic  rule."  The  answer 
to  this  objection  is  that  even  in  a  democratic  society  social 
organization  does  the  same  thing  as  far  as  the  individual  is 
concerned.  Society  and  its  official  representatives  set  definite 
lines  within  which  the  individual  must  behave.  To  him  these 
lines  may  appear  "  arbitrary  and  despotic  "  and  may  seem  to 
"  disregard  his  individuality"  ;  but  he  has  to  conform.  Thus, 
a  driver  of  a  vehicle  in  the  crowded  streets  of  Chicago  can- 
not make  a  crossing  without  the  permission  of  the  traffic 
policeman.  Doubtless  he  would  often  prefer  to  dash  ahead, 
after  the  policeman  has  blown  his  whistle  to  stop  traffic  in 
his  direction.  Doubtless  it  appears  "  arbitrary  and  despotic  " 
when  the  policeman  makes  him  take  a  long  turn  in  going 
around  a  corner,  instead  of  "  short-cutting  "  across.  But  the 
traffic  regulations,  personified  in  the  traffic  policeman,  are 
great  social  time-savers.  When,  as  an  experiment,  the  police- 
men were  removed  for  a  few  minutes  one  day  in  the  congested 
down-town  district,  it  required  only  a  short  time  for  all  traffic 
to  come  to  a  standstill,  because  the  "  individuality  "  of  the 
drivers,  chauffeurs,  and  motormen  was  given  full  sway  and 
the  "  despotic  rule  "  of  the  social  guardians  abolished. 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       29 

Efficient  spontaneity  may  be  encouraged  by  routine  respon- 
sibilities.—  Another  objection  which  is  advanced  against 
providing  for  routine  in  school  work  is  that  it  "  discourages 
spontaneous  effort."  If  this  be  true,  it  is  just  as  true  of 
democratic  social  life  as  it  is  of  the  school.  In  our  own  modern 
democratic  life  all  activities  are  organized  and  nearly  every 
person  operates  as  part  of  some  organization,  whether  it  be  the 
government,  or  a  business  house,  or  simply  a  family.  As  a  rule, 
the  individual  who  is  working  in  an  organization  has  certain 
lines  prescribed  for  him,  within  which  he  may  be  as  "  intel- 
ligently spontaneous  "  as  he  is  capable  of  being.  The  buyer 
for  a  department  in  a  large  business  concern  or  the  head  of 
a  government  office  has  certain  definite  routine  responsibili- 
ties, but  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  interferes  with  his  effi- 
cient spontaneity  in  perfecting  his  own  work.  The  testimony 
of  many  persons  would  indicate  just  the  opposite,  namely, 
that  definitely  fixed  routine  responsibilities  may  act  as  stimuli 
to  spontaneous  effort  instead  of  acting  as  deterrents. 

Routine  does  not  necessarily  eliminate  rational  methods. 
—  Another  objection  that  is  sometimes  urged  against  routin- 
izing  any  school  activities  is  that  "  mechanical  organization  in 
matters  properly  routine  tends  to  spread  to  matters  of  a 
different  nature."  Unfortunately  this  is  true  in  the  case  of 
many  teachers  and  administrators.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
there  are  many  educational  extremists  who  tend  to  line  up 
in  either  one  of  the  following  columns. 

Extreme  formalists  Extreme  idealists 

1.  All  routine,  no  freedom.  i.  All  freedom,  no  routine. 

2.  Emphasize  formal  subjects,      2.  Emphasize  content  subjects, 

neglect  content  subjects.  neglect  formal  subjects. 

3.  Emphasize  memorizing,  neg-      3.  Emphasize    reasoning,    neg- 

lect reasoning.  lect  memorizing. 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  be  either  an  extreme  formalist  or 
an  extreme  idealist.  It  is  possible  to  provide  for  an  adequate 


30  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

study  of  the  content  subjects  by  methods  that  involve  reason- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time  to  provide  for  routinizing  those 
phases  of  classroom  management  in  which  it  will  result  in 
economy  of  time  and  effort. 

Habits  free  the  mind  for  reasoning.  —  The  point  just 
mentioned  is  related  to  a  final  objection,  namely,  that  "  rou- 
tine, or  habit,  antagonizes  reason."  By  habit  we  mean  the 
tendency  to  behave  in  situations  in  approximately  the  same 
ways  as  we  have  behaved  in  similar  situations  before.  By 
reasoning  we  mean  the  tendency  to  reflect  concerning  re- 
adjusting or  modifying  our  reactions  to  situations  —  to  think 
out  new  methods  of  dealing  with  problematic  situations. 

The  tendency  to  focus  attention  on  either  one  or  the  other 
of  these  two  phases  of  behavior,  namely,  habit  and  reason- 
ing, is  brought  out  in  an  interesting  way  in  comparing  two 
definitions  of  education,  one  by  William  James  (1842-1910) 
and  the  other  by  Professor  John  Dewey,  two  of  the  foremost 
American  writers  on  psychology.  In  his  "Talks  to  Teachers 
on  Psychology  "  (p.  29)  James  says,  "  Education  is  the  organ- 
ization of  acquired  habits  of  conduct  and  tendencies  to  behav- 
ior," and  on  page  viii  he  says,  "  The  aim  of  education  is  to 
make  useful  habits  automatic."  Here  we  have  the  emphasis 
placed  on  the  habit  element  in  education.  On  the  other  hand, 
Dewey  says :  "  Education  is  the  reconstruction  of  experience." 
Here  the  emphasis  is  placed,  not  on  the  fixing  of  former 
methods  of  behavior,  but  on  the  breaking  up  of  habits  and 
the  readjustment  of  one's  old  methods  of  behavior  to  meet 
new  and  changing  situations. 

The  apparent  contradiction  involved  in  these  two  defini- 
tions of  education  disappears,  however,  when  we  get  a  com- 
plete statement  from  one  of  the  authors,  in  which  both 
factors,  habit  and  reason,  are  taken  into  consideration.  Thus, 
James  says : 

We  must  make  automatic  and  habitual,  as  early  as  possible,  as 
many  useful  actions  as  we  can.  .  .  .  The  more  of  the  details  of  our 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       31 

daily  life  we  can  hand  over  to  the  effortless  custody  of  automatism, 
the  more  our  higher  powers  of  mind  will  be  set  free  for  their  own 
proper  work.  There  is  no  more  miserable  human  being  than  one 
in  whom  nothing  is  habitual  but  indecision,  and  for  whom  the 
lighting  of  every  cigar,  the  drinking  of  every  cup,  the  time  of 
rising  and  going  to  bed  every  day,  and  the  beginning  of  every  bit 
of  work,  are  subjects  of  express  volitional  deliberation.  Full  half 
the  time  of  such  a  man  goes  to  the  deciding,  or  regretting,  of 
matters  which  ought  to  be  so  ingrained  in  him  as  practically  not 
to  exist  for  his  consciousness  at  all.  If  there  be  such  daily  duties 
not  yet  ingrained  in  any  one  of  my  readers,  let  him  begin  this  very 
hour  to  set  the  matter  right.  (2  :  122) 

This  quotation  gives  the  crue  relation  to  establish  between 
habit  and  reasoning,  and  may  well  furnish  a  motto  for  class- 
room activity,  namely,  "  Make  habitual,  as  early  as  possible, 
as  many  useful  acts  as  you  can,  in  order  that  the  minds  of 
teachers  and  children  may  be  free  to  consider  problems  that 
are  worth  reasoning  about."  We  shall  now  proceed  to  apply 
this  motto  to  the  various  routine  aspects  of  classroom  man- 
agement which  were  outlined  above  on  page  27. 

Begin  right  the  first  day.  —  The  first  consideration  in 
classroom  management  from  the  standpoint  of  routine  is 
to  get  started  right  the  first  day.  As  James  advises  in  the 
last  sentence  in  the  quotation  given  above,  "  begin  this  very 
hour  to  set  the  matter  right."  In  other  words,  the  time 
to  set  matters  right  is  at  the  beginning.  Any  neglect  of  this 
advice  results  in  lost  ground  which  can  only  be  recovered  later 
by  sacrifice  of  time  and  energy.  James  gives  the  following 
rule  in  this  connection  :  "In  the  acquisition  of  a  new  habit 
...  we  must  take  care  to  launch  ourselves  with  a  decided 
initiative."  Applied  to  the  first  day  at  school,  this  rule  means 
that  work  should  start  off  with  a  vigorous  attack  by  pupils 
and  teacher.  It  means  that  it  is  important  to  have  the  im- 
pressions of  the  first  day  be  those  that  are  to  persist  and 
give  the  keynote  for  the  rest  of  the  term. 


32  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Become  acquainted  in  advance  with  the  local  situation. 
—  In  order  to  be  able  to  do  this,  the  beginning  teacher,  or 
a  teacher  in  a  new  situation,  needs  to  get  on  the  ground 
some  days  before  school  opens  and  to  familiarize  himself  thor- 
oughly with  the  situation  in  general  and  in  detail.  This  should 
include  a  study  of  the  community,  of  the  recent  history  of 
the  school,  of  the  ideals  and  policy  of  the  present  adminis- 
tration, of  the  building  (with  its  classrooms,  assembly  ar- 
rangements, laboratories,  gymnasium,  heating  and  ventilating 
systems),  of  the  school  library  and  other  neighboring  library 
facilities.  It  would  include  also  a  careful  examination  of  the 
course  of  study  and  of  the  annual  and  daily  programs.  This 
should  lead  to  a  definite  planning  of  the  work  to  be  covered 
for  the  whole  term  in  each  subject  or  with  each  class.  If  it 
is  the  teacher's  first  year  in  teaching,  he  would  do  well  to 
advise  with  several  experienced  teachers  concerning  the  best 
pace  with  which  to  advance  with  the  various  classes. 

Plan  definite  activities  for  the  first  day.  —  Having  got 
the  general  situation  in  mind,  he  should  plan  in  detail  the 
work  of  the  first  week  and  be  prepared  to  use  the  first  class 
meeting  for  purposes  of  serious  instruction.  In  order  to  do 
this  he  will  have  to  make  sure  that  the  necessary  materials 
are  on  hand,  including  possibly  chalk,  paper,  maps,  speci- 
mens, or  whatever  may  be  required. 

The  work  of  the  first  day  may  include  three  elements : 
(i)  steps  to  acquaint  the  teacher  with  the  students,  (2)  steps 
to  acquaint  the  students  with  the  general  plans  of  the  teacher, 
(3)  some  actual  instruction.  Any  of  these  elements  might 
occupy  the  whole  period,  but  it  is  better  to  provide  partially 
for  each  than  to  give  up  the  whole  period  to  any  one.  In 
order  to  provide  for  the  first  the  teacher  should  have  on 
hand  a  supply  of  cards  or  blanks,  on  which  he  asks  the 
students  to  give  certain  definite  information  for  which  he 
has  placed  questions  on  the  blackboard.  To  provide  for  the 
second  he  may  present  on  the  board,  or  in  a  talk,  or  by  means 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       33 

of  mimeographed  copies,  an  outline  of  what  the  course  will 
cover.  This  should  not  be  a  dry  abstract,  but  should  be 
sufficiently  concrete  and  interesting  to  be  understood  by  the 
pupils,  who  as  yet  may  know  nothing  about  the  subject. 
Students  like  to  know  "  whither  they  are  bound,"  and  a 
concrete  presentation  of  some  of  the  problems  to  be  con- 
sidered will  help  them  in  appreciating  the  general  trend  of 
the  work  as  it  develops  during  the  term. 

First-day  instruction  ;  review  or  introduction.  —  The  third 
phase  of  the  work  of  the  first  day  —  namely,  instruction  — 
may  with  advantage  assume  either  of  two  forms :  It  may  be  a 
review  discussion  of  the  previous  work  of  the  students  in  the 
subject  to  be  studied,  and  of  related  experiences,  or  it  may  be 
a  conversational  introduction  to  the  new  work.  It  is  hard  to 
imagine  a  subject  in  which  either  of  these  practices  could 
not  be  followed  to  advantage  ;  mathematics,  foreign  language, 
history,  science,  literature  —  all  offer  excellent  opportunities 
for  such  introductory  treatment. 

With  the  first  day  used  effectively  in  some  such  ways  as 
have  been  suggested,  the  first  step  has  been  taken  in  the 
direction  of  economizing  time  and  energy. 

Assigned  seats  for  pupils  save  time.  —  The  second  routine 
aspect  of  classroom  management  concerns  arrangements  for 
the  seating  of  students  for  recitations.  This  matter  is  not  so 
important  in  high  school  as  it  is  in  the  elementary  school, 
but  it  deserves  some  consideration  in  the  former.  If  pupils 
are  assigned  regular  seats,  it  makes  for  economy  in  a  number 
of  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  enables  the  teacher  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  pupils  in  a  very  short  time.  It  also  en- 
ables the  teacher  to  take  the  attendance  by  a  rapid  inspection, 
thus  saving  the  time  that  is  often  wasted  in  calling  the  roll.  It 
facilitates  returning  papers,  as  these  can  be  distributed  to  the 
places  before  the  class  assembles,  or  can  be  passed  to  the  rows 
in  a  very  short  time.  If  only  a  few  minutes  are  saved  each  day 
in  this  way,  the  total  saving  in  the  long  run  may  be  enormous. 


34  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Congestion  relieved  by  routinizing  passing.  —  The  passing 
of  pupils  to  and  from  recitations  is  a  source  of  considerable 
waste  of  time.  This  waste  usually  occurs  outside  of  the  rooms, 
however ;  hence  it  is  not  so  much  a  problem  of  classroom 
management  as  of  general  supervision.  The  passing  from 
an  assembly  room  may  be  organized  by  requiring  rows  to 
pass  out  in  a  certain  order,  thus  saving  several  minutes. 
Similar  precautions  in  congested  corridors  may  also  save  time. 

Tardiness  results  from  congestion.  —  One  of  the  results 
of  confusion  in  passing  between  recitations  is  tardiness. 
Some  of  this  is  necessary,  but  much  of  it  results  from  the 
general  spirit  of  loitering  which  is  encouraged  by  congestion. 
It  is  difficult  to  offer  any  helpful  positive  suggestions  to 
reduce  such  tardiness,  but  there  is  one  negative  warning  — 
don't  lock  the  door  to  keep  out  late  comers.  In  view  of 
the  well-known  dangers  from  panic  and  fire  it  seems  childish 
to  offer  this  warning ;  yet  in  high  schools  and  colleges  it  is 
periodically  necessary  for  the  administrative  officers  to  send 
it  out  to  instructors  who  have  been  violating  the  rule.  Some 
instructors  do  not  permit  tardy  pupils  to  enter.  The  disadvan- 
tages of  this  practice  are  that  it  often  works  an  injustice  to 
a  student  who  is  necessarily  tardy  and  it  takes  the  time  of 
the  instructor  in  arranging  to  have  the  tardy  student  make 
up  the  work.  Some  instructors  count  so  many  tardinesses  as 
an  absence,  and  require  extra  work  to  make  this  up.  Some 
depend  upon  moral  suasion  in  the  form  of  discussions  con- 
cerning the  importance  of  promptness  in  social  life,  and  call 
attention  to  such  matters  as  the  use  of  time  clocks  in  fac- 
tories and  the  financial  loss  from  being  late. 

Economy  in  handling  materials.  Large  savings  from  slight 
variations.  —  The  fourth  routine  factor  to  be  considered  is 
the  handling  of  materials.  This  is  important  in  laboratory 
work  in  the  natural  sciences,  in  shop  work,  in  theme  work 
in  composition  classes,  in  the  use  of  libraries,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  notebooks.  Enormous  savings  may  be  effected  by 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       35 

a  very  slight  change  in  equipment  or  methods  of  handling 
materials.  A  most  striking  example  of  this  from  the  elemen- 
tary school  is  the  introduction  of  slates  and  blackboards  and 
printed  copy  slips  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Up  to  that  time  quill  pens  were  used,  and  each  student 
went  to  the  teacher's  desk  when  necessary  and  had  the 
teacher  write  a  "  copy  "  or  a  problem  in  his  manuscript  book. 
Two  hours  of  the  teacher's  time  each  day  was  commonly  taken 
up  in  making  pens  and  setting  copies.  The  introduction  of 
slates  and  blackboards  and  the  use  of  printed  copy  slips  freed 
nearly  all  of  this  time,  so  it  could  be  used  for  purposes  of 
instruction  —  a  most  striking  example  of  how  improvement 
in  routine  or  in  the  mechanical  aspects  of  school  work  may 
make  possible  increased  attention  to  the  judgment  factors. 

System  in  handling  laboratory  apparatus  and  supplies.  — 
In  connection  with  laboratory  work,  examples  of  waste  due 
to  failure  to  provide  for  the  proper  handling  of  materials  are 
constantly  coming  under  observation.  An  example  occurred 
in  a  domestic-science  lesson  in  which  it  was  necessary  to  use 
thermometers  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  experiment.  Most  of 
the  students  reached  this  stage  at  the  same  time,  and  got  to 
wrangling  in  trying  to  provide  themselves  with  thermom- 
eters from  one  drawer  where  the  supply  was  kept.  This 
waste  should  have  been  avoided  by  having  the  thermometers 
distributed  in  advance  or  by  a  monitor  shortly  before  they 
were  needed.  The  general  problem  of  economy  in  handling 
laboratory  materials  is  discussed  at  length  in  Lloyd  and 
Bigelow's  "Teaching  of  Biology"  (4)  ;  this  should  be  read 
by  all  beginning  science  teachers  and  the  general  spirit  of 
the  directions  carried  out  in  all  laboratories  (biological,  chemi- 
cal, and  physical)  and  in  domestic  science.  Unless  careful 
steps  are  taken  to  avoid  it,  there  is  probably  more  time  wasted 
in  laboratory  work  than  in  any  other  type  of  high-school  exer- 
cise. If  there  is  the  least  opportunity,  many  pupils  will  spend 
their  time  in  "  monkeying  "  and  "  fooling  around  "  instead 


36  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

of  attending  to  business ;  and  often,  even  when  they  seem 
to  be  attentively  working,  their  minds  are  off  woolgathering 
in  ways  that  would  not  be  tolerated  or  even  be  possible  in  a 
recitation  in  mathematics  or  history  or  foreign  language. 

Example  of  waste  and  economy  in  manual-training  shops. 
-  The  general  plans  for  laboratory  management  which  have 
been  discussed  may  be  applied  to  shop  work  in  manual  train- 
ing and  household  arts  and  to  work  in  drawing.  In  all  of 
these  subjects  the  arrangements  should  be  so  systematized 
that  the  students  have  practically  all  of  the  period  to  use  for 
concentrated  work  instead  of  being  delayed  in  securing  ma- 
terials ;  yet  I  have  seen  a  whole  manual-training  class  wait 
while  the  instructor  sawed  out  boards  on  a  circular  saw  into 
pieces  for  the  students  to  use.  The  amount  of  time  which  it 
takes  to  make  adequate  preparation  for  classes  is  suggested 
by  the  statement  of  another  manual-training  teacher,  who 
said  that  he  had  to  work  all  day  every  Saturday  getting  out 
materials  for  the  classes  to  use  during  the  next  week. 

English  teachers  seeking  economical  methods  in  theme 
work.  —  One  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  attention  to 
the  problem  of  waste  of  time  and  energy  in  connection  with 
routine  matters  is  the  recent  agitation  among  teachers  of 
English  regarding  the  reading  and  correcting  of  themes. 
These  teachers  have  suddenly  become  conscious  of  the  fact 
that  they  have  been  doing  an  overwhelming  amount  of  work 
with  no  commensurate  return,  and  are  trying  to  discover 
whether  better  results  can  be  secured  with  less  expenditure 
of  time  through  the  use  of  improved  routine  devices.  The 
National  Council  of  English  Teachers  has  been  considering 
the  matter  for  some  time,  and  their  discussions  are  rapidly 
producing  results. 

Devices  for"  red-ink  economy"  in  composition  work. — An 
account  of  some  of  the  time-saving  devices  in  English  com- 
position is  contained  in  an  article  entitled  "  A  Composition 
on  Red  Ink,"  from  which  the  following  quotations  are  taken: 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       37 

Red  ink  is  to  our  profession  as  drugs  are  to  the  medical  profes- 
sion. We  cannot,  or  think  we  cannot,  get  along  without  it.  But 
these  are  well-nigh  drugless  days.  The  medicine  cabinet  is  smaller 
than  it  used  to  be.  ...  I  do  not  look  to  see  red-inkless  days ;  yet 
the  time  may  come,  and  soon,  when  shallower  ink  bottles  will  be  the 
mode.  ...  I  would  gladly  hasten  the  coming  of  such  a  time,  and 
with  this  laudable  purpose  in  mind  I  shall  jot  down  all  the  ways  I 
can  think  of  in  which  red-ink  economy  may  be  practiced.  .  .  . 

1.  Call  for  less  written  work.    We  have  been  composition  mad 
for  ten  years.    Never  mind  what  Harvard  thinks  and  does.  .  .  . 
There  is  such  a  thing  as  overtraining.    A  few  furlongs  of  the  right 
sort  of  composition  may  be  vastly  more  effective  than  as  many 
miles  of  the  humdrum  variety. 

2.  Call  for  shorter  themes.  ...    A  large  amount  of  necessary 
training  can  just  as  well  be  carried  on  through  the  writing  of  twenty- 
minute  or  half-hour  compositions,  provided  most  of  these  .  .  .  are 
written  leisurely  [and]  carefully. 

3.  Use  the  wastebasket.    But  let  [it]  stand  in  front  of  the  desk, 
not  behind  it.   Don't  put  written  work  in  it  yourself ;  let  the  pupils 
put  it  in.  ...    This  applies  to  [some  of]  the  written  work  done  in 
class.  .  .  .    Pupils  .  .  .  can  be  made  to  understand  that  while  it  is 
good  to  have  one's  work  carefully  criticized,  much  can  be  gained 
by  simply  writing  as  well  as  one  knows  how.  .  .  . 

4.  Use  college  binders,  preserving  in  them  all  exercises  done  at 
home.    Let  the  pupils  keep  these  binders.    Why  ?    Because  you 
must  insist  that  before  writing  composition  number  two  they  ex- 
amine composition  number  one  and  see  what  red-ink  suggestions 
have  been  made.    Otherwise,  being  but  children,  they  will  make 
the  same  mistakes  over  and  over,  which  must  be  corrected  over 
and  over.    (7:  273-277) 

Reflecting  lantern  used  to  place  theme  before  class.  —  The 
teachers  of  composition  are  also  interested  in  securing  ma- 
terial equipment  which  will  assist  them  in  their  work.  For 
example,  they  are  interested  in  using  a  reflecting  lantern  by 
means  of  which  a  large  part  of  a  page  from  a  theme  may  be 
thrown  upon  a  screen  for  class  criticism.  Such  a  single  object 
as  the  center  of  attention  for  discussion  is  superior  to  any 


38  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

other  arrangement  for  getting  the  same  material  before  the 
whole  class.  The  teacher  by  using  a  pointer  can  easily  and 
quickly  direct  the  attention  of  all  students  to  the  same  point. 
Lanterns  which  project  an  object  eight  inches  square  are  now 
on  the  market. 

Library  economy ;  adequate  equipment  and  management 
and  definite  assignments  necessary.  —  The  equipment  and 
management  of  school  libraries  is  another  routine  matter  of 
considerable  importance.  It  is  probably  better  not  to  attempt 
to  use  the  library  at  all  for  regularly  assigned  readings,  than 
to  have  it  managed  in  such  a  way  that  students  waste  hours 
of  time  trying  to  get  the  material  to  be  read.  A  working 
library,  equipped  with  several  copies  of  books  definitely  usa- 
ble in  connection  with  class  work,  and  properly  catalogued 
and  managed  by  a  trained  attendant,  should  be  an  essential 
part  of  every  city  high  school.  Such  a  provision  is  impossible 
in  many  high  schools,  but  even  where  it  is  approximated, 
there  is  often  enormous  waste  in  using  the  library,  owing  to 
the  failure  of  the  teachers  to  provide  for  the  routine  aspects 
of  the  work.  The  principal  errors  are  the  following:  (i) 
failure  to  "  reserve  "  the  copies  of  a  book  before  referring 
the  class  to  it ;  (2)  referring  a  large  class  to  a  book  of  which 
there  may  be  only  one  or  two  copies ;  (3)  making  the  refer- 
ences so  vaguely  that  a  student  has  to  spend  considerable 
time  in  finding  what  he  is  to  read. 

Historical  sources  used  economically  in  class.  —  An  inter- 
esting example  of  economy  in  the  use  of  supplementary 
reading  is  found  in  the  use  of  sources  in  history  by  Mr.  A.  F. 
Barnard  of  the  High  School  of  The  University  of  Chicago. 
As  aids  in  the  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  history  Mr.  Bar- 
nard has  in  his  classroom  copies  of  each  of  the  following : 
the  Iliad,  translated  by  Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers ;  Herodotus, 
translated  by  Rawlinson ;  and  Xenophon's  Memorabilia. 
When  such  a  topic  as  the  development  of  Greek  religion  is 
being  studied,  the  copies  of  the  Iliad  are  distributed  on 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       39 

the  desks  while  the  students  are  assembling.  When  the 
earlier  phases  of  Greek  religion  are  to  be  discussed,  the 
students  are  asked  to  open  the  Iliad  to  a  definite  page 
and  line  and  to  read.  In  the  Herodotus  and  Xenophon  the 
excerpts  are  read  by  the  teacher  at  the  appropriate  places  in 
the  discussion.  Thus,  in  a  moment,  without  a  second  being 
wasted  in  getting  at  the  books,  the  source  material  is  placed 
before  the  pupils  just  when  it  can  be  used  to  best  advantage. 
Pupils  are  expected  to  fix  the  results  of  the  reading  and  dis- 
cussion by  taking  notes,  for  which  purpose  a  brief  outline  is 
generally  placed  on  the  blackboard  as  a  guide. 

Brevity  and  conciseness  necessary  in  economical  use  of 
notebooks.  —  The  economical  use  of  notebooks  is  another 
routine  factor  of  considerable  importance.  Notebooks  are 
used  in  high  schools  as  records  of  library  reading,  of  labora- 
tory work,  and  occasionally  of  lectures.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  keeping  of  voluminous,  carefully  written  notes  is  a 
waste  of  the  student's  time.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident 
that  a  brief,  concise  record  of  the  student's  thought  or  reac- 
tions is  desirable.  The  problem  is  to  avoid  the  former  and 
secure  the  latter,  for  even  when  the  brief,  concise,  original 
statement  by  the  student  is  asked  for,  he  is  likely  to  sub- 
mit a  voluminous  copied  statement  instead.  The  desired  end 
may  be  attained  by  some  device  which  necessitates  sub- 
divisions or  paragraphs  that  make  the  items  in  the  report 
stand  out  clearly,  and  requires  the  use  of  concise  forms  of 
expression  by  the  student. 

Class  outlines  and  syllabi  to  be  mimeographed  by  skilled 
operator,  not  dictated.  —  As  a  final  topic  under  the  discus- 
sion of  economy  in  using  materials  we  shall  consider  the 
value  of  using  machines  for  manifolding  copies  of  lists  of 
assigned  readings,  of  laboratory  directions,  of  class  outlines 
and  syllabi,  etc.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  teachers  to  con- 
sume the  time  of  pupils  by  dictating  such  material  instead 
of  having  it  printed  in  some  way.  Every  large  high  school 


40  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

should  have  such  mechanical  devices  and  employ  such  cleri- 
cal help  as  is  necessary  to  manifold  copies  of  all  material 
that  can  be  manifolded  to  advantage.  The  principal  of  the 
high  school  should  see  that  this  is  done,  and  should  stimu- 
late the  teachers  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  instead 
of  waiting  for  the  teachers  to  become  so  much  interested  in 
the  matter  that  they  request  such  assistance.  The  ordinary 
Edison  rotary  mimeograph  is  excellent  for  this  purpose. 
From  one  well-cut  stencil  hundreds  of  clear  copies  may  be 
run  off  in  a  few  minutes.  The  work  should  be  done  by  a 
person  who  has  developed  skill  in  the  operations. 

Teacher  may  use  simple,  inexpensive  duplicator.  —  In  case 
there  is  no  central  office  in  which  a  skilled  operator  does 
the  manifolding  for  the  whole  school,  it  is  possible  for  a 
relatively  unskilled  teacher  to  manifold  his  own  material  by 
using  a  duplicator  or  hektograph.  Such  an  arrangement  sim- 
ply involves  making  one  handwritten  or  typewritten  copy, 
laying  this  on  a  specially  prepared  surface  so  that  an  ink  im- 
pression is  left,  then  removing  the  copy  and  pressing  sheets 
of  paper  upon  the  impression.  Fifty  or  more  copies  may  thus 
be  transferred  without  any  special  skill  being  required.  An 
inexpensive  duplicator  could  probably  be  easily  secured  through 
a  local  stationer,  or  even  a  homemade  hektograph  constructed 
by  following  one  of  the  current  recipes. 

The  manifolding  of  directions,  syllabi,  etc.  not  only  saves 
much  time  but  also  stimulates  more  definite  and  careful  or- 
ganization of  the  courses  of  instruction.  Furthermore,  it 
removes  many  elements  of  uncertainty  in  assignments.  If 
the  assignments  for  a  term's  work  are  definitely  made  out 
in  this  way,  the  students  have  no  occasion  for  misunder- 
standing what  is  expected  of  them. 

This  completes  our  discussion  of  economizing  time  and 
energy  in  the  handling  of  materials.  We  have  taken  up 
only  a  few  examples  from  laboratory  and  shop  work,  compo- 
sition courses,  the  use  of  libraries  and  notebooks,  and  the 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       41 

manifolding  of  outlines.  Many  other  examples  could  be  con- 
sidered to  advantage,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  demon- 
strate the  importance  of  the  topic  and  to  suggest  some  of 
its  practical  possibilities. 

Proper  ventilation  and  lighting  conserve  energy.  —  The 
fifth  routine  factor  to  be  considered  in  economizing  time 
and  energy  is  attention  to  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
classroom.  This  is  important  not  only  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  temporary  and  permanent  effect  upon  health,  but  also 
from  the  standpoint  of  waste  of  energy.  If  a  room  is  poorly 
ventilated  or  lighted,  the  energy  of  the  students  which  is 
available  for  concentrated  study  is  diminished. 

Teacher  may  supplement  ventilating  system  ;  use  of  moni- 
tor. —  The  teacher  should  acquaint  himself  with  the  ventilat- 
ing system  and  try  to  cooperate  effectively  in  its  management. 
If  it  does  not  work,  he  may  be  able  to  take  steps  to  sup- 
plement it.  For  example,  in  two  recitation  rooms  which  I 
have  used  there  was  an  ample  supply  of  fresh  air  from 
the  inlet  in  the  wall  near  the  ceiling  in  one  end  of  each 
room.  But  in  each  case  the  outlet  was  placed  in  the  wall 
near  the  floor  directly  under  the  inlet.  As  a  consequence  the 
air  circulated  very  well  in  one  end  of  the  room,  but  three 
fourths  of  the  room  received  practically  no  benefit  from  the 
system.  Upon  the  suggestion  of  the  teacher  a  metal  deflector 
was  made  by  the  engineer  and  fastened  on  the  inlet  in  such 
a  way  as  to  send  the  air  diagonally  across  the  room,  thus  pro- 
viding a  supply  of  fresh  air  for  nearly  all  parts.  In  case 
there  is  no  ventilating  system,  the  teacher  can  at  least  pro- 
vide for  boards  on  the  window  sills.  These  will  make  it  pos- 
sible to  keep  the  windows  partly  open  during  recitations  in 
cold  weather.  It  would  also  be  well  to  have  a  monitor  in  each 
class,  who  should  open  the  windows  wide  when  the  class 
arises  to  leave  for  the  next  recitation,  thus  providing  for 
three  or  four  minutes  of  thorough  ventilation.  The  teacher 
should  not  rely  upon  his  own  impressions  concerning  the 


42  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

condition  of  the  air  in  the  room,  for  his  sense  of  smell  soon 
becomes  fatigued  in  such  a  way  that  it  does  not  inform  him 
of  the  conditions. 

Arrange  so  that  students  do  not  face  the  light,  —  In  regard 
to  lighting,  the  teacher's  first  duty  is  to  arrange  so  that  pupils 
do  not  sit  facing  the  light.  The  frequent  neglect  of  this  simple 
precaution  is  very  striking.  In  constructing  library  reading 
rooms  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  many  readers  placed  so 
that  they  face  low  windows.  Students  often  sit  voluntarily 
in  such  positions  that  they  receive  the  full  glare  of  the  light 
directly  in  their  eyes  but  have  their  books  so  placed  that 
these  receive  little  illumination.  In  assuming  such  positions 
it  would  seem  that  they  were  handicapping  themselves  pur- 
posely in  order  to  waste  as  much  energy  as  possible. 

Avoid  shadows  on  the  page.  —  The  second  precaution  is 
to  arrange  so  that  there  are  no  shadows  on  the  page  at  which 
the  pupil  is  looking.  In  other  words,  there  should  be  the 
same  degree  of  illumination  all  over  the  page.  If  this  is  not 
the  case,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  constantly  readjusting  itself 
to  the  different  degrees  of  illumination.  This  is  not  only  a 
waste  of  energy,  but  it  is  often  quite  distracting  and  annoy- 
ing, although  the  reader  may  not  be  clearly  conscious  of  the 
cause  of  the  annoyance.  We  have  extreme  examples  of  this 
variation  in  illumination  on  a  day  when  shifting  clouds  cause 
a  rapid  alternation  of  sunshine  and  shadow.  The  eyestrain 
under  these  extreme  conditions  is  quite  noticeable.  When 
part  of  the  page  is  well  illuminated  and  the  other  part  in 
deep  shadow,  the  eyes  may  experience  the  same  phenomenon 
on  a  smaller  scale  some,  fifty  to  a  hundred  times  in  reading  a 
single  page. 

Single  source  of  illumination  best.  —  The  first  step  usually 
taken  to  avoid  such  a  situation  is  to  provide  that  the  light 
shall  come  from  a  single  source.  The  student  can  then  easily 
sit  in  such  a  position  that  there  are  no  shadows  on  his  page. 
If  there  are  two  sources  of  light,  the  possibilities  of  sitting  so 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       43 

as  not  to  have  shadows  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  face  a  light 
directly  are  greatly  reduced.  If  there  are  a  great  many  near 
sources  of  illumination,  as  in  a  railroad  coach  at  night,  the 
page  may  be  streaked  with  light  and  shadow.  In  construct- 
ing schoolrooms  it  is  now  quite  common  to  provide  that  the 
light  shall  come  only  from  one  side  (namely,  the  left),  in 
order  to  avoid  shadows.  Even  if  there  are  several  sources 
of  light  in  a  room,  the  teacher,  by  proper  manipulation  of  the 


HIGH-SCHOOL  BUILDING  OF  THE  H-TYPE 

Note  the  "  blind  "  ends  so  constructed  that  the  light  in  the  corner  rooms  all  comes 

from  one  side 

shades  and  by  proper  directions  to  the  pupils,  can  greatly 
reduce  the  loss  of  energy  which  would  result  from  reading 
under  conditions  that  cause  strain  or  distraction. 

Good  order  an  important  time-saver.  Favored  by  students. 
— The  sixth  and  final  routine  factor  which  we  shall  consider 
in  our  discussion  of  economy  of  time  and  energy  is  good 
order.  Failure  on  the  part  of  students  to  attend  to  business 
is  an  important  source  of  waste  in  the  classroom.  As  a  rule, 
the  teacher  may  assume  that  if  the  other  conditions  of  in- 
struction are  properly  provided  for,  most  of  the  students  will 
favor  conditions  of  good  order  instead  of  disorder.  There  will 


44  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

always  be  a  small  minority  of  the  students,  however,  who  are 
not  in  school  for  serious  purposes  and  who  will  make  trouble 
if  any  opportunity  arises. 

Avoid  opportunities  for  disorder  through  proper  routine. 
—  Hence  one  of  the  most  important  steps  in  securing  good 
order  is  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible  the  opportunities  for 
making  trouble.  Some  of  the  most  important  steps  in  this 
direction  involve  carrying  out  the  directions  concerning  the 
routinizing  of  classroom  activity  that  were  presented  above. 

If  the  first  day  is  begun  with  a  businesslike  spirit,  if  there 
are  certain  definite  tasks  to  be  accomplished  concerning  which 
there  is  a  clear  mutual  understanding  between  teacher  and 
pupils,  if  students  are  seated  to  the  best  advantage,  if  tardi- 
ness is  avoided,  if  materials  are  so  placed  as  to  obviate  waste- 
ful movements,  conflicts,  and  confusion,  if  the  ventilating  and 
lighting  are  so  arranged  as  to  contribute  to  vitality  and  com- 
fort instead  of  fatigue,  annoyance,  and  irritability  —  if  all 
these  matters  are  properly  provided  for,  then  many  oppor- 
tunities for  disorder  are  eliminated. 

Discipline  easier  in  subjects  providing  definite  tasks.  — 
The  simplifying  of  the  problem  of  discipline  through  definite 
tasks  which  keep  all  students  busy  is  illustrated  in  contrast- 
ing a  class  in  algebra  with  one  in  history  or  literature.  It  is 
a  simple  matter  so  to  conduct  a  class  in  algebra  as  to  have 
every  pupil  responsible  all  the  time  for  some  definite  objec- 
tive work  which  requires  his  concentrated  attention.  It  is 
much  more  difficult  to  do  so  with  history  or  literature.  Hence 
almost  any  teacher  ought  to  be  able  to  have  constant  good 
order  in  an  algebra  class  but  might  be  in  constant  difficulty 
with  a  history  or  literature  class. 

Discipline  depends  on  teacher  s  personality  ;  this  is  inborn. 
—  Apart  from  proper  attention  to  the  routine  factors  to 
which  reference  has  been  made,  the  maintenance  of  good 
order  depends  largely  on  the  teacher's  personality.  Since  per- 
sonality is  to  such  a  large  extent  inborn  and  not  acquired, 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       45 

it  does  little  good  to  discuss  the  aspects  of  personality  that 
make  for  easy  control.  Nevertheless,  a  few  statements  may 
bring  out  some  helpful  suggestions. 

Authority,  dignified  reserve,  and  friendliness  as  factors. 
-The  problem  of  discipline  has  probably  been  given  the 
most  study  in  connection  with  certain  systems  of  schools 
that  have  a  more  or  less  continuous  history  of  several  cen- 
turies, such  as  the  great  English  secondary  schools  and  the 
schools  of  certain  Catholic  organizations,  notably  the  Brethren 
of  the  Christian  Schools  and  the  Jesuits.  The  following  quo- 
tation from  a  book  by  a  Jesuit  is  contained  in  the  "  Essays 
on  Educational  Reformers,"  by  R.  H.  Quick,  who  introduces 
it  with  the  statement  that  it  illustrates  how  carefully  the 
Jesuits  have  studied  the  teacher's  difficulties.  The  quotation 
furnishes  material  for  consideration  or  discussion,  especially 
concerning  the  influence  upon  discipline  of  authority,  of  friend- 
liness, and  of  dignified  reserve  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

The  master  in  charge  of  the  boys,  especially  in  playtime,  in  his 
first  intercourse  with  them  has  no  greater  snare  in  his  way  than 
taking  his  power  for  granted  and  trusting  to  the  strength  of  his 
will  and  his  knowledge  of  the  world,  especially  as  he  is  at  first 
lulled  into  security  by  the  deferential  manner  of  his  pupils. 

That  master  who  goes  off  with  such  ease  from  the  very  first,  to 
whom  the  carrying  out  of  all  the  rules  seems  the  simplest  thing  in 
the  world,  who  in  the  very  first  hour  he  is  with  them  has  already 
made  himself  liked,  almost  popular  with  his  pupils,  who  shows  no 
more  anxiety  about  his  work  than  he  must  show  to  keep  his  char- 
acter for  good  sense — that  master  is  indeed  to  be  pitied  ;  he  is  most 
likely  a  lost  man.  He  will  soon  have  to  choose  one  of  two  things : 
either  to  shut  his  eyes  and  put  up  with  all  the  irregularities  he 
thought  he  had  done  away  with  or  to  break  with  a  past  that  he 
would  wish  forgotten  and  engage  in  open  conflict  with  the  boys 
who  are  inclined  to  set  him  at  defiance.  These  cases  are,  we  trust, 
rare.  But  many  believe  with  a  kind  of  rash  ignorance,  and  in  spite 
of  the  warnings  of  experience,  that  the  good  feelings  of  their  pupils 
will  work  together  to  maintain  their  authority.  They  have  been 


46  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

told  that  this  authority  should  be  mild  and  endeared  by  acts  of 
kindness.  So  they  set  about  crowning  the  edifice  without  making 
sure  of  the  foundations,  and,  taking  the  title  of  authority  for  its 
possession,  they  spend  all  their  efforts  in  lightening  a  yoke  of  which 
no  one  really  bears  the  weight. 

In  point  of  fact  the  first  steps  often  determine  the  whole  course. 
For  this  reason  you  will  attach  extreme  importance  to  what  I  am 
now  going  to  advise  : 

The  chief  characteristic  in  your  conduct  toward  the  boys  during 
the  first  few  weeks  should  be  an  extreme  reserve.  However  far 
you  go  in  this,  you  can  hardly  overdo  it.  So  your  first  attitude  is 
clearly  defined. 

You  have  everything  to  observe — the  individual  character  of  each 
boy  and  the  general  tendencies  and  feelings  of  the  whole  body. 
But  be  sure  of  one  thing,  viz.  that  you  are  observed  also  and  a 
careful  study  is  made  of  both  your  strong  points  and  your  weak. 
Your  way  of  speaking  and  of  giving  orders,  the  tone  of  your  voice, 
your  gestures,  disclose  your  character,  your  tastes,  your  failings, 
to  a  hundred  boys  on  the  alert  to  pounce  upon  them.  One  is 
summed  up  long  before  one  has  the  least  notion  of  it.  Try,  then, 
to  remain  impenetrable.  You  should  never  give  up  your  reserve 
till  you  are  master  of  the  situation. 

For  the  rest,  let  there  be  no  affectation  about  you.  Don't 
attempt  to  put  on  a  severe  manner ;  answer  politely  and  simply 
your  pupils'  questions,  but  let  it  be  in  few  words,  and  avoid  con- 
versation. All  depends  on  that.  Let  there  be  no  chatting  with 
them  in  these  early  days.  You  cannot  be  too  cautious  in  this 
respect.  Boys  have  such  a  polite,  such  a  taking  way  with  them 
in  drawing  out  information  about  your  impressions,  your  tastes, 
your  antecedents ;  don't  attempt  the  diplomat ;  don't  match  your 
skill  against  theirs.  You  cannot  chat  without  coming  out  of  your 
shell,  so  to  speak.  Instead  of  this,  you  must  puzzle  them  by 
your  reserve  and  drive  them  to  this  admission :  "  We  don't  know 
what  to  make  of  our  new  master." 

Do  I  advise  you,  then,  to  be  on  the  defensive  throughout  the 
whole  year  and  like  a  stranger  among  your  pupils  ?  No  I  a  thou- 
sand times,  No  !  It  is  just  to  make  their  relations  with  you  simple, 
confiding,  I  might  say  cordial,  without  the  least  danger  to  your 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       47 

authority,  that  I  endeavor  to  raise  this  authority  at  first  beyond 
the  reach  of  assault.     (10 :  60-62) 

Example  of  the  importance  of  tact.  —  Among  other  per- 
sonal qualities  that  are  important  in  maintaining  good  order 
are  tact,  decision,  and  consistency.  Lack  of  tact  is  illustrated 
by  the  incident  of  a  high-school  teacher  who  told  her  pupils 
that  they  need  not  come  to  class  next  day  if  they  did  not  have 
their  lessons  better  prepared.  The  class  took  her  at  her  word 
and  the  next  day  remained  quietly  studying  in  the  assembly 
room.  When  the  principal  asked  them  for  an  explanation, 
they  gave  him  the  facts  and  went  on  studying.  The  principal 
thought  it  was  a  good  lesson  for  the  teacher  and  left  her  to 
restore  matters  to  their  normal  condition. 

Importance  of  decision. —  The  influence  of  lack  of  decision 
is  illustrated  by  the  remark  often  made  by  a  distracted  mother 
when  she  says  to  her  child,  "  I  don't  know  what  I  will  do  to 
you  if  you  don't  behave  yourself."  No  doubt  teachers  often 
find  themselves  in  the  same  uncertain  condition,  but  it  does  not 
improve  matters  to  let  the  pupils  know  it.  If  possible,  take 
the  time  which  may  be  necessary  to  determine  upon  the  best 
course  of  action  and  then  proceed  to  carry  out  your  decision. 

Importance  of  consistency.  —  The  influence  of  lack  of  con- 
sistency is  illustrated  by~  teachers  and  parents  who  are  always 
threatening  but  never  executing.  They  announce  that  certain 
consequences  will  follow  upon  certain  acts  and  they  are  not 
consistent  in  carrying  out  their  statements.  Students  very 
soon  learn  that  they  are  likely  to  escape  the  consequences  in 
many  cases,  and  are  willing  to  take  the  chances  or  to  gamble 
on  the  issue. 

Objective  impersonal  attitude  better  than  emotional  storm, 
and  stress. —  In  general,  teachers  will  do  well  to  endeavor  to 
maintain  a  purely  objective,  impersonal  attitude  in  most  cases 
of  disorder.  As  a  rule  the  offense  is  essentially  an  offense 
against  the  class  or  group  whose  progress  is  interfered  with. 


48  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

As  far  as  possible  the  notion  that  it  is  an  offense  against 
the  teacher,  and  that  a  personal  conflict  between  pupil  and 
teacher  ensues,  should  be  avoided.  Occasional  outbursts  of 
righteous  indignation  may  be  necessary,  but  they  should  be 
infrequent.  For  many  persons,  whether  pupils  or  adminis- 
trators, most  emotional  storm  and  stress  is  an  unfortunate 
waste  of  energy  which  temporarily  impairs  their  efficiency. 
Hence  it  should  be  avoided  except  in  special  cases. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  phases  of  the  work  of  a 
dean  or  principal  is  the  attitude  of  students  who  are  sum- 
moned to  the  office  to  discuss  the  fact  that  they  are  falling 
below  grade  in  their  studies.  Many  of  them  enter  as  if  the 
principal  were  a  pursuing  Nemesis  ready  with  a  sword  to  cut 
off  their  heads  and  thirsting  for  their  blood.  In  order  to  ap- 
pease the  terrible  monster  they  begin  to  say  that  they  cannot 
understand  why  they  have  received  such  low  grades,  since  they 
have  been  studying  most  conscientiously.  It  always  astonishes 
them  when  they  discover  that  the  principal  is  not  thirsting  for 
their  blood,  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  from  a  purely  objec- 
tive standpoint  the  excuse  which  they  offer  makes  their  cases 
almost  hopeless,  for  if  they  have  been  failing  when  studying  as 
hard  as  they  possibly  can,  there  is  little  hope  for  improvement. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  routine.  —  This  will  conclude 
our  discussion  of  the  economizing  of  time  and  energy  through 
careful  attention  to  the  more  mechanical  aspects  of  classroom 
management.  Most  educational  idealists  and  theorists  give 
these  problems  little  attention,  but  they  are  important  factors 
in  the  success  of  every  kind  of  human  organization  ;  hence 
they  deserve  special  consideration  in  such  a  complicated  social 
organization  as  the  school. 


ECONOMY  IN  CLASSROOM  MANAGEMENT       49 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General  discussion,  i.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.  Classroom  Management, 
its  Principles  and  Technique.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1907.)  The 
best  general  discussion.  All  beginning  teachers  in  elementary  schools 
should  read  it  carefully.  High-school  teachers  may  receive  valuable 
general  suggestions  from  it. 

2.  JAMES,  WILLIAM.   Principles  of  Psychology.   (Henry  Holt  and 
Company,  1890.)    Vol.  I,  chap,  iv,  on  Habit,  especially  pp.  120-127. 

Laboratory  routine.  3.  GREEK,  W.  C.  The  Teaching  of  Chemistry 
in  Secondary  Schools.  School  Review,  1906,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  282-286. 

4.  LLOYD,  F.  E.  and  BIGELOW,  M.  A.    The  Teaching  of  Biology. 
(Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1904.)    Pp.  204-228,  312-319,  392-416. 

5.  SMITH,  A.,  and  HALL,  E.  H.    The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and 
Physics  in  Secondary  Schools.  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1902.)  Pp.  94- 
100,  123-125,  187-206,  289-303,  348-355. 

Composition  routine.  6.  BARNES,  W.  The  Reign  of  Red  Ink. 
English  Journal,  March,  1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  158-165. 

7.  HITCHCOCK,  A.  M.    A  Composition  on  Red  Ink.    The  English 
Journal,  May,  1912,  Vol.  I,  pp.  273-277. 

Ventilation  and  lighting.  8.  DRESSLAR,  F.  B.  School  Hygiene. 
(The  Macmillan  Company,  1913.) 

Discipline.  9.  BROWN,  J.  F.  The  American  High  School.  (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1 909.)  Pp.  285-302.  Contains  select  bibliography 
on  pp.  301-302. 

10.  QUICK,  R.  H.  Educational  Reformers.  (D.  Appleton  and  Com- 
pany, 1890.)  Pp.  60-62.  Quotation  from  a  Jesuit  author. 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  III,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E28-E33. 

For  problems  on  Chapter  IV  as  well  as  additions  to  the  bibliography, 
see  pp.  E  40-E  5 1  of  the  Exercises. 

For  the  assignment  of  a  paper  based  on  the  examination  of  high- 
school  textbooks,  see  pp.  E3&-E39  of  the  Exercises. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SELECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF 
SUBJECT  MATTER 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  The  material  within  the  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum  should  be  adapted  to  varying  social  needs. 

2.  Social  needs  vary  historically ;  hence  material  adapted  only 
to  needs  that  no  longer  exist  should  not  be  retained,  and  material 
adapted  to  new  needs  should  be  introduced. 

3.  Social  needs  vary  between  different  communities  ;  hence  the 
subject  matter  appropriate  in  a  rural  high  school  is  different  from 
that  appropriate  in  a  city  high  school. 

4.  Social   needs   vary   between   different   groups   of   students 
within  the  same  community  or  institution ;    hence  the  material 
within  a  single  subject   (for  example,  mathematics,  English,  or 
science)  should  be  varied  accordingly. 

5.  In  selecting  topics  it  is  not  enough  to  show  that  they  have 
some  value ;  it  must  be  clearly  demonstrated  that  they  have  suffi- 
cient social  value  to  justify  the  amount  of  time  required  to  master 
them,  and  that  they  are  more  valuable  than  other  possible  topics. 

6.  In  the  content  subjects  (history,  geography,  science,  etc.) 
it  is  important  to  avoid  the  encyclopedic  treatment  of  many  top- 
ics and  to  provide  instead  for  the  thorough,  intensive  study  of  a 
few  topics. 

a.  This  will  provide  that  the  one  tenth  of  the  subject  matter 
that  is  remembered  is  worth  remembering. 

b.  It  will  necessitate  a  wealth  of  forgettable  details.    These 
should  be  related  to  and  should  support  the  general  principle  or 
fact   which   is  being   taught ;    they  should  not  be  isolated  and 
unrelated. 

7.  The  order  of  topics  in  a  subject  should  be  decided  by  the 
needs,  capacities,  and  interests  of  high-school  students,  not  by  the 

5° 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  51 

nature  of  the  subject  itself   or  the  interests  of  a  specialist  in 
the  subject.    For  example, 

a.  In  high-school  mathematics  this  standard  will  require  the 
inclusion  of  many  practical  problems  and  the  mixing  of  the  easier 
topics  of  algebra  and  geometry  and  some  arithmetic  in  the  first  year. 

b.  The  first  year's  work  in  science  should  consist  of  a  general- 
science  course,  which  should  take  its  point  of  departure  from  prac- 
tical issues  in  social  life  and  should  draw  upon  the  various  sciences 
for  material  which  will  throw  light  on  these  issues. 

Relation  to  preceding  chapters  indicated. —  In  the  two 
preceding  chapters  we  developed  two  fundamental  points  of 
view  which  should  be  coordinated  and  kept  in  mind  as  the 
bases  of  progressive,  efficient  high-school  instruction.  The 
first  of  these  emphasizes  the  conception  of  high-school  instruc- 
tion as  organized  on  broad  democratic  lines  to  train  pupils 
for  morally  directed  social  efficiency  and  for  the  harmless  en- 
joyment of  leisure  time.  The  second  point  of  view  empha- 
sizes the  necessity  of  applying  principles  of  effective  business 
management  to  classroom  instruction,  in  order  that  progressive 
ideals  may  be  achieved  economically  and  effectively. 

Having  gained  an  idea  of  the  purposes  that  high-school 
teachers  should  try  to  achieve,  and  the  fundamental  principles 
of  administration  that  should  prevail  in  the  classroom,  we 
come  to  a  more  direct  consideration  of  methods  of  teaching. 
Some  of  the  problems  involved  will  be  taken  up  in  the  fol- 
lowing order:  (i)  What  principles  shall  guide  us  in  choosing 
the  subject  matter  to  be  used  in  order  to  achieve  our  pur- 
poses ?  (2)  How  do  students  carry  on  most  economically  and 
effectively  the  various  types  of  learning  involved  in  the  types 
of  subject  matter  which  we  select  ?  (3)  What  incentives  shall 
we  use  in  order  to  get  students  to  apply  themselves  so  as  to 
carry  on  the  various  learning  processes  to  the  best  advantage  ? 
In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  take  up  the  first  of  these 
problems,  namely,  the  determination  of  the  guiding  principles 
in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  subject  matter. 


52  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Widespread  interest  in  selection  and  arrangement  of 
subject  matter. — A  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  subject 
matter  that  he  is  to  teach  has  been  generally  admitted  to  be 
an  important  factor  in  a  high-school  teacher's  efficiency.  In 
fact,  those  educators  who  have  been  most  skeptical  concern- 
ing the  importance  of  pedagogical  training  for  high-school 
teachers  have  commonly  maintained  that  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  subject  matter  is  the  one  thing  that  is  necessary. 
This  was  for  a  long  time  the  prevailing  attitude  among  col- 
lege professors,  and  to  a  large  extent  among  high-school 
teachers  themselves.  In  recent  years,  however,  an  increasing 
number  of  professors  and  teachers  have  manifested  a  strong 
interest  not  only  in  the  mastery  of  subject  matter  but  also 
in  the  discussion  of  the  proper  selection  and  arrangement 
of  subject  matter  for  the  most  effective  teaching.  This  is 
especially  evident  in  the  proceedings  of  associations  of  the 
teachers  of  special  subjects,  such  as  history  and  mathematics. 
Notable  examples  of  such  discussions  are  found  in  the  several 
reports  issued  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  on  the  teach- 
ing of  history.  These  include  the  report  of  the  Madison  Con- 
ference of  1892  (which  was  printed  as  part  of  the  report  of 
the  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  National  Education  Associ- 
ation), the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven  of  the  Ameri- 
can Historical  Association  (1899),  and  the  report  of  the 
New  England  History  Teachers'  Association  (1899).  One 
of  the  latest  significant  reports  on  this  subject  is  that  of  the 
Committee  of  Five  of  the  American  Historical  Association, 
published  in  1910.  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  literature, 
science,  mathematics,  and  other  subjects  there  is  active 
discussion  of  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  subject 
matter  that  is  appropriate  for  high-school  courses. 

Subject  matter  not  to  be  arranged  in  inflexible  order.  — 
This  activity  is  leading  to  a  gradual  disappearance  of  the 
idea  that  high-school  subject  matter  is  largely  preordained 
in  more  or  less  fixed  form,  and  that  the  teacher's  duty  is  to 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  53 

conduct  all  children  through  it  by  the  same  road  and  with 
the  same  experiences.  The  newer  and  more  flexible  point 
of  view  may  be  discussed  to  advantage  under  the  following 
four  headings  : 

I.  The  selection  of  subject  matter  in  relation  to  varying 
social  needs. 

II.  The  determination  of  relative  values. 

III.  The  intensive  treatment  of  a  few  large  topics. 

IV.  Organization  in  terms  of  the  learner  instead  of  in 
terms  of  the  subject  itself. 

I.  THE  SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  IN  RELATION 
TO  VARYING  SOCIAL  NEEDS 

Social  needs  vary  historically ;  subject  matter  should  vary 
accordingly.  —  The  first  point  of  view  from  which  we  shall 
consider  the  adaptation  of  subject  matter  to  varying  social 
needs  is  the  historical  one.  As  far  as  the  high-school  cur- 
riculum as  a  whole  is  concerned,  the  most  striking  example 
of  the  change  in  social  needs  is  in  the  need  for  Latin.  As 
shown  above  on  page  8,  when  Latin  secured  its  prominent 
place  in  the  curriculum,  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  earlier, 
it  was  needed  in  nearly  all  pursuits  and  professions  in  which 
reading  played  an  important  part.  At  the  present  time,  not 
one  student  in  a  thousand  of  those  who  enter  high  school 
will  need  Latin  in  anything  like  the  way  in  which  it  was 
needed  originally. 

Spencer  discussed  varying  social  needs  in  relation  to 
English  secondary  education.  —  One  of  the  most  vigorous 
and  influential  discussions  of  the  desirability  of  adapting  the 
school  curriculum  to  social  needs  as  they  change  historically 
is  Herbert  Spencer's  essay  entitled  "  What  Knowledge  is 
Most  Worth."  This  essay  was  published  in  1859  as  an 
attack  on  the  classical  English  secondary  schools,  which  had 
continued  to  teach  almost  exactly  the  same  subjects  in  about 


54  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  same  way  as  had  been  done  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  had  failed  to  take  account  of  the  enormous  scientific 
and  economic  changes  that  had  occurred  in  the  meantime. 
In  summarizing  his  criticism  of  this  practice,  Spencer  wrote 
as  follows : 

That  which  our  school  courses  leave  almost  entirely  out  we 
thus  find  to  be  that  which  most  nearly  concerns  the  business  of 
life.  All  our  industries  would  cease,  were  it  not  for  that  informa- 
tion which  men  begin  to  acquire  as  they  best  may  after  their  edu- 
cation is  said  to  be  finished.  And  were  it  not  for  this  information, 
that  has  been  from  age  to  age  accumulated  and  spread  by  unoffi- 
cial means,  these  industries  would  never  have  existed.  Had  there 
been  no  teaching  but  such  as  is  given  in  our  public  schools,  Eng- 
land would  now  be  what  it  was  in  feudal  times.  That  increasing 
acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  phenomena  which  has  through  suc- 
cessive ages  enabled  us  to  subjugate  nature  to  our  needs,  and  in 
these  days  gives  the  common  laborer  comforts  which  a  few  centu- 
ries ago  kings  could  not  purchase,  is  scarcely  in  any  degree  owed 
to  the  appointed  means  of  instructing  our  youth.  The  vital  knowl- 
edge —  that  by  which  we  have  grown  as  a  nation  to  what  we  are, 
and  which  now  underlies  our  whole  existence  —  is  a  knowledge  that 
has  got  itself  taught  in  nooks  and  corners  while  the  ordained  agencies 
for  teaching  have  been  mumbling  little  else  but  dead  formulas. 

Dewey  described  cttrricuhint  changes  in  relation  to  social 
changes. — A  more  recent  notable  presentation  of  the  neces- 
sity of  adapting  the  curriculum  to  social  needs  as  they  change 
historically  is  the  first  chapter  in  Professor  John  Dewey's 
"  School  and  Society  "  (i  899).  In  establishing  a  general  point 
of  view  from  which  to  regard  educational  problems,  he  says  : 

Whenever  we  have  in  mind  the  discussion  of  a  new  move- 
ment in  education,  it  is  especially  necessary  to  take  the  broader, 
or  social,  point  of  view.  Otherwise,  changes  in  the  school  insti- 
tution and  tradition  will  be  looked  at  as  the  arbitrary  inventions 
of  particular  teachers  —  at  the  worst,  transitory  fads,  and  at  the 
best,  merely  improvements  in  certain  details ;  and  this  is  the  plane 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  55 

upon  which  it  is  too  customary  to  consider  school  changes.  It  is 
as  rational  to  conceive  of  the  locomotive  or  the  telegraph  as  per- 
sonal devices.  The  modification  going  on  in  the  method  and  cur- 
riculum of  education  is  as  much  a  product  of  the  changed  social 
situation,  and  as  much  an  effort  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  new 
society  that  is  forming,  as  are  changes  in  modes  of  industry  and 
commerce. 

It  is  to  this,  then,  that  I  especially  ask  your  attention :  the  effort 
to  conceive  what  roughly  may  be  termed  the  "  new  education  " 
m  the  light  of  larger  changes  in  society.  Can  we  connect  this 
"  new  education  "  with  the  general  march  of  events  ?  If  we  can, 
it  will  lose  its  isolated  character  and  will  cease  to  be  an  affair 
which  proceeds  only  from  the  overingenious  minds  of  pedagogues 
dealing  with  particular  pupils.  It  will  appear  as  part  and  parcel  of 
the  whole  social  evolution,  and,  in  its  more  general  features  at 
least,  as  inevitable.  (2 :  20) 

Three  types  of  historical  changes  affecting  selection  of 
subject  matter.  —  The  point  of  view  which  Spencer  and 
Dewey  discuss  for  the  curriculum  as  a  whole  should  be 
kept  in  mind  by  each  high-school  teacher  in  connection 
with  the  selection  of  the  topics  and  material  within  a  given 
subject.  The  topics  and  methods  of  treatment  that  are  most 
appropriate  now  are  not  the  same  as  they  were  five  hundred 
or  one  hundred  or  even  fifty  years  ago  in  most  subjects. 
There  are  three  types  of  historical  changes  that  are  respon- 
sible for  this  :  namely,  (i)  general  social  changes  such  as  the 
economic  developments  that  Spencer  and  Dewey  emphasize ; 
(2)  changes  in  the  character  of  the  subject  itself  ;  (3)  changes 
in  the  character  or  selection  of  the  pupils  who  attend  the 
high  schools. 

Social  changes  affecting  subject  matter  in  history.  —  Con- 
sider, for  example,  the  subject  matter  to  be  taught  in  history 
and  civics. 

I.  The  social  changes  that  are  influential  here  are  the 
decline  of  religious  and  aristocratic  control  which  for  many 


56  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

centuries  was  dominant  in  Europe  and  America ;  the  cor- 
responding development  of  democratic  control,  with  the  re- 
sulting necessity  of  developing  democratic  intelligence ;  the 
industrial  revolution  of  the  later  eighteenth  and  early  nine- 
teenth centuries,  which  grew  out  of  the  development  of  the 
factory  system  ;  the  resulting  creation  of  large  industrial  cities 
and  new  political  forces  ;  the  new  and  unsolved  problems  of 
domestic  and  civic  life  which  are  a  consequence  of  the  indus- 
trial development. 

2.  The  changes  in  the  nature  of  the  subject  of  history 
itself  parallel  in  a  way  these  larger  social  changes.    Instead 
of  the  histories  of  the  clergy,  such  as  prevailed  in  the  middle 
ages,  or  of  kings  and  of  military  and  political  events,  which 
followed,  or  of  constitutional  history,  which  is  still  a  large 
factor  at  the  present  time,  history  is  beginning  to  be  written 
from  an  economic  point  of  view.   In  this  economic  interpre- 
tation of  history  the  large  part  played  in  historical  develop- 
ment by  industrial  changes  is  given  special  emphasis. 

In  the  case  of  the  subject  matter  of  civics  there  is  a  transi- 
tion from  the  exclusive  discussion  of  national  problems  and 
the  study  of  the  national  constitution  to  a  study  of  local  politi- 
cal and  civic  problems  concerning  which  the  ordinary  citizen 
needs  to  be  especially  well  informed. 

3 .  As  far  as  the  students  who  study  history  are  concerned, 
we  have  the  change  noted  in  Chapter  I,  from  the  selected 
"  promising  lads,"  who  would  go  on  to  higher  professional 
study,  to  a  high-school  enrollment  that  includes  nearly  all  the 
types  of  students  to  be  found  in  elementary  schools,  but  many 
of  whom  will  not  go  beyond  the  first  year  of  high  school. 

Teacher  of  history  should  be  guided  by  these  facts.  — 
From  a  study  of  these  facts  the  beginning  high-school 
teacher  should  learn  to  realize  that  the  subject  matter  of 
high-school  history  is  not  a  preordained,  fixed  system  but  is 
subject  to  large  modifications.  Hence  he  should  become  in- 
telligently critical  of  the  material  which  he  may  find  in  a 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  57 

given  course  of  study,  especially  in  the  first  year,  and  should 
raise  such  questions  as  the  following :  Does  this  material 
represent  merely  a  survival  of  that  which  was  adapted  to 
former  social  conditions  ?  Has  it  been  carefully  selected  so 
as  to  be  adapted  to  present  social  needs  ?  Does  it  take 
account  of  changes  in  the  subject  itself  ?  Does  it  best  meet 
the  needs  of  the  more  general  class  of  students  to  be  found 
in  the  first  year  of  high  school,  who  have  had  only  the  ele- 
mentary work  in  American  history  and  may  never  take  any 
other  courses  in  history  ? 

Three  stages  in  the  history  of  botany  :  medical,  systematic, 
evolutionary.  —  Further  illustrations  of  the  selection  of  sub- 
ject matter  from  the  standpoint  of  social  needs  as  they  vary 
historically  may  be  found  in  many  subjects.  The  sciences 
furnish  some  of  the  best  illustrations.  Take  botany  for  ex- 
ample. In  the  Middle  Ages  and  for  some  time  thereafter  it 
was  pursued  primarily  as  an  aid  to  medical  practice.  Later 
it  became  highly  specialized  as  a  science  in  which  the  classi- 
fication of  plants  seemed  to  be  the  beginning  and  end  of 
all  endeavor.  And  now,  in  its  evolutionary  aspects,  with  its 
investigations  of  the  influences  which  determine  the  survival 
of  plants,  it  is  fundamentally  related  to  the  whole  problem  of 
agriculture  and  the  supplying  of  food  for  the  human  race. 
In  its  bacteriological  aspects  it  is  vitally  related  to  health. 

Social  value  of  geometry  relatively  unchanged  in  two 
thousand  years.  —  There  is  one  subject  in  the  high-school 
curriculum  which  is  peculiar  in  its  relation  to  historical 
changes  in  social  conditions.  It  is  geometry.  As  a  step 
toward  acquiring  higher  mathematics  which  may  be  used 
in  higher  scientific  work  or  engineering  it  has  increased  in 
importance ;  but  from  the  standpoint  of  improvement  in 
the  subject  itself  or  from  the  standpoint  of  its  direct  ap- 
plied value  for  students  who  do  not  go  on  to  higher  mathe- 
matics it  has  changed  very  little  through  more  than  two 
thousand  years.  These  facts  are  interestingly  set  forth  by 


58  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Professor  D.  E.  Smith  in  his  book  entitled  "  The  Teaching 
of  Geometry."  After  quoting  a  commentary  on  the  work  of 
Euclid,  who  lived  about  300  B.C.,  Smith  says  : 

This  characterizes  the  work  of  Euclid,  a  collection  of  the  basic 
propositions  of  geometry,  and  chiefly  of  plane  geometry,  arranged 
in  logical  sequence,  the  proof  of  each  depending  upon  some  pre- 
ceding proposition,  definition,  or  assumption  (axiom  or  postulate). 
The  number  of  the  propositions  of  plane  geometry  included  in 
the  "  Elements  "  [of  Euclid]  is  not  entirely  certain,  owing  to  some 
disagreement  in  the  manuscripts,  but  it  was  between  one  hundred 
sixty  and  one  hundred  seventy-five.  .  .  .  The  efforts  at  revising 
Euclid  have  been  generally  confined  ...  to  rearranging  his  material, 
to  rendering  more  modern  his  phraseology,  and  to  making  a  book 
that  is  more  usable  with  beginners  if  not  more  logical  in  its  pres- 
entation of  the  subject.  While  there  has  been  an  improvement 
upon  Euclid  in  the  art  of  bookmaking,  and  in  minor  matters  of 
phraseology  and  sequence,  the  educational  gain  has  not  been  com- 
mensurate with  the  effort  put  forth.  With  a  little  modification  of 
Euclid's  semi-algebraic  Book  II  and  of  his  treatment  of  proportion, 
with  some  scattering  of  the  definitions  and  the  inclusion  of  well- 
graded  exercises  at  proper  places,  and  with  attention  to  the  modern 
science  of  bookmaking,  the  "  Elements  "  would  answer  quite  as 
well  for  a  textbook  to-day  as  most  of  our  modern  substitutes,  and 
much  better  than  some  of  them.  (3  :  52-53) 

Geometry  never  has  had  much  practical  social  value.  — 
Concerning  the  practical,  or  applied,  value  of  geometry  for 
students  who  do  not  go  on  to  a  higher  study  of  mathematics 
or  science  or  engineering,  Smith  says  : 

In  view  of  a  periodic  activity  in  favor  of  the  utilities  of  geom- 
etry, it  is  well  to  understand,  in  the  first  place,  that  geometry  is  not 
studied,  and  never  has  been  studied,  because  of  its  positive  utility 
in  commercial  life  or  even  in  the  workshop.  In  America  we  com- 
monly allow  at  least  a  year  to  plane  geometry  and  a  half  year  to 
solid  geometry ;  but  all  of  the  facts  that  a  skilled  mechanic  or  an 
engineer  would  ever  need  could  be  taught  in  a  few  lessons.  All 
the  rest  is  either  obvious  or  is  commercially  and  technically  useless. 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  59 

We  prove,  for  example,  that  the  angles  opposite  the  equal  sides  of  a 
triangle  are  equal,  a  fact  that  is  probably  quite  as  obvious  as  the  pos- 
tulate that  but  one  line  can  be  drawn  through  a  given  point  parallel 
to  a  given  line.  .  .  .  [Such]  theorems  are  perfectly  fair  types  of 
upwards  of  one  hundred  sixty  or  seventy  propositions  comprising 
Euclid's  books  on  plane  geometry.  They  are  generally  not  useful  in 
daily  life,  and  they  were  never  intended  to  be  so.  There  is  an  oft- 
repeated  but  not  well-authenticated  story  of  Euclid  that  illustrates  the 
feeling  of  the  founders  of  geometry  as  well  as  of  its  most  worthy 
teachers.  A  Greek  writer,  Stobaeus,  relates  the  story  in  these  words  : 

Some  one  who  had  begun  to  read  geometry  with  Euclid,  when  he 
had  learned  the  first  theorem,  asked,  "  But  what  shall  I  get  by  learning 
these  things  ?  "  Euclid  called  his  slave  and  said,  "  Give  him  three  obols, 
since  he  must  make  gain  out  of  what  he  learns."  (3 :  7-8) 

...  it  is  evident  that  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  propositions 
have  any  genuine  applications  outside  of  geometry,  and  that  if  we 
are  to  attempt  any  applications  at  all,  these  must  be  sought  mainly 
in  the  field  of  pure  geometry.  (3  :  74) 

The  actual  amount  of  algebra  needed  by  a  foreman  in  a  machine 
shop  can  be  taught  in  about  four  lessons,  and  the  geometry  or 
mensuration  that  he  needs  can  be  taught  in  eight  lessons  at  the 
most.  The  necessary  trigonometry  may  take  eight  more,  so  that 
it  is  entirely  feasible  to  unite  these  three  subjects.  (3  :  90) 

Doubtful  whether  geometry  is  best  for  many  high-school 
piipils.  —  These  extended  quotations  from  such  a  standard 
authority  as  Professor  Smith  may  be  accepted  as  stating 
authoritatively  the  relation  of  geometry  to  social  needs  as  the 
latter  have  varied  historically.  Professor  Smith  proceeds  to 
argue  skillfully  for  the  study  of  geometry  upon  other  grounds. 
From  the  standpoint  of  this  chapter,  however,  the  statements 
concerning  the  small  applied  value  of  geometry  would  sug- 
gest the  following  conclusion :  if,  since  the  development 
of  geometry  historically,  other  subject  matter  has  developed 
which  is  directly  related  to  community  needs,  and  this  new 
subject  matter  can  be  organized  effectively  for  purposes  of 
instruction  in  the  first  two  years  of  high  school  for  students 


60  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

who  do  not  intend  to  go  to  college,  then  it  is  no  longer 
necessary  to  give  courses  in  geometry  to  such  students. 
Hence,  though  geometry  may  have  been  the  best  mathe- 
matics available  for  youth  in  past  centuries,  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  it  continues  to  be  the  best  subject  matter  available 
at  the  present  time. 

Social  needs  vary  between  different  communities  ;  subject 
matter  should  vary  accordingly.  —  The  first  basis  of  varia- 
tion in  social  needs  and  subject  matter  which  we  considered 
was  the  historical  one.  We  shall  now  take  up  the  second 
basis  of  variation,  namely,  variation  between  different  com- 
munities. This  is  a  basis  that  is  rapidly  securing  the  rec- 
ognition which  it  deserves.  This  recognition  is  in  striking 
contrast  with  the  tendency  to  establish  standardized,  uniform 
courses  of  study  in  all  communities,  irrespective  of  their 
local  needs,  which  prevailed  as  long  as  college-entrance  re- 
quirements were  the  dominant  influence  in  determining  high- 
school  curricula. 

Small  high  schools  should  meet  local  needs.  —  One  of  the 
most  vigorous  discussions  of  the  new  tendency  is  an  article 
entitled  "  The  Opportunity  of  the  Small  High  School,"  by 
David  Snedden,  Commissioner  of  Education  for  Massachu- 
setts, from  which  the  following  quotation  is  taken : 

The  conviction  is  slowly  spreading  that  the  traditional  program 
of  the  small  high  school  is,  for  those  who  do  not  reach  college, 
a  relatively  futile  affair  when  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  any 
one  of  the  three  possible  aims  of  secondary  education,  namely, 
vocational  efficiency,  civic  capacity,  and  personal  culture.  There 
is  a  growing  demand,  often  inarticulate  in  communities  supporting 
such  schools,  but  finding  more  definite  expression  in  circles  where 
these  problems  can  be  systematically  studied,  that  the  artificial 
restrictions  imposed  on  general  secondary  education  be  relaxed, 
and  that  such  education  be  measurably  readjusted  so  as  to  serve 
more  acceptably  the  actual  needs  of  the  community.  .  .  .  Those 
responsible  for  the  administration  of  the  small  high  school  must 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  61 

needs  give  special  attention  to  a  determination  of  what  is  meant 
by  community  needs,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  educational  possi- 
bilities of  different  groups  of  children  of  secondary-school  age,  on 
the  other.  (4  :  100) 

In  continuing  his  discussion,  Mr.  Snedden  takes  up  a 
consideration  of  the  consequences,  for  the  various  subjects 
in  the  curriculum,  of  adapting  them  to  the  needs  of  commu- 
nities where  the  small  high  schools  are  located.  This  sug- 
gestive discussion  might  be  read  by  students  to  advantage. 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 
READJUSTED   ACADEMY  AT  COLEBROOK,   N.H. 

Reconstructed  Cole  brook  academy  is  meeting  rural  needs  in 
New  Hampshire.  —  One  of  the  most  significant  experiments 
along  this  line  is  taking  place  in  Colebrook,  in  the  northern 
part  of  New  Hampshire,  and  is  described  in  a  bulletin  en- 
titled "  The  Readjustment  of  a  Rural  High  School  to  the 
Needs  of  the  Community  "  (1912).  The  broader  social  bear- 
ings of  this  experiment  are  so  significant  that  a  statement 
of  them  will  be  quoted  at  length  from  the  bulletin  as  follows  : 

A  secondary  school,  whether  located  in  a  city,  village,  or  rural 
hamlet,  should  be  a  source  of  strength  to  the  community.  The 
city  or  village  in  which  a  secondary  school  is  located,  and  the  entire 


62  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

section  of  the  country  directly  tributary  to  the  school,  should  con- 
tinually grow  stronger  as  a  direct  result  from  the  school.  The 
school  should  constantly  put  back  into  the  community  the  best  of 
each  generation  as  permanent  residents  if  it  is  to  justify  its  own 
existence  and  the  taxation  necessary  for  its  maintenance. 

That  rural  secondary  schools  have  been  in  many  instances  a 
source  of  weakness  to  the  communities  which  have  supported 
them,  and  a  direct  means  of  taking  out  of  the  community  the 
very  manhood  and  womanhood  so  necessary  to  the  future  pros- 
perity of  state  and  nation,  is  one  of  the  saddest  aspects  of  modern 
education.  State  Superintendent  Morrison  has  forcibly  brought 
this  fact  home  to  the  people  of  New  Hampshire  [in  the  follow- 
ing words]  : 

During  the  first  three  quarters  of  the  nineteenth  century  every  group 
of  three  or  four  towns  had  its  academy,  usually  an  endowed  institution. 
Out  of  these  academies  went  a  steady  stream  of  sons  and  daughters, 
who  were,  other  things  being  equal,  always  the  strongest  of  the  genera- 
tion, for  otherwise  they  would  not  have  gained  this  education.  Seldom 
did  they  settle  upon  the  old  farm  or  in  the  home  town.  Their  education 
had  fitted  them  for  other  things. 

They  became  lawyers,  or  physicians,  or  clergymen,  or  schoolmasters, 
or  business  men  in  the  cities,  and  the  girls  went  with  them.  .  .  .  Their 
children  grew  up  under  city  conditions  and  went  to  city  schools.  The 
unambitious,  the  dull,  the  unfortunate  boys  of  the  old  countryside,  who 
could  not  get  to  the  academy,  as  a  class,  remained  behind  and  became 
the  dominant  stock.  And  they  reproduced  their  kind  for  another  gener- 
ation, upon  whom  the  same  sorting  process  was  carried  out.  Then  the 
factory  system  seized  upon  the  strong-limbed  and  restless,  albeit  slow- 
witted,  and  began  to  sort  them  out  and  remove  them.  Finally,  the  Civil 
War  came  and  struck  down  the  idealists  by  the  wholesale,  mostly  boys  or 
young  men  who  had  not  yet  reproduced  themselves  in  a  new  generation. 
Now,  upon  a  journey  through  rural  New  England,  you  will  see  fine 
old  mansions,  showing  by  their  architecture  that  they  date  back  well 
toward  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  ample  old  home- 
steads with  their  capacious  barns,  all  of  them  more  or  less  in  a  state  of 
decay.  .  .  .  These  were  the  homes  of  a  race  which  lived  and  prospered, 
which  cleared  the  land  and  built  homes  and  added  barn  to  barn,  which 
accumulated  wealth  and  gave  virile  expression  of  itself  in  Church,  in 
State,  and  in  educational  institutions.  .  .  .  But  that  race  allowed  its  sons 
and  daughters  to  be  educated  away  from  the  farm  and  the  country  and 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  63 

from  the  state.    In  their  place  to-day  we  too  often  have  a  dwindling  town, 
a  neglected  farm,  a  closed  church,  an  abandoned  schoolhouse. 

The  solution  of  this  problem  of  the  welfare  of  the  rural  sections 
of  New  England  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  not  only  to  the 
educator  but  to  all  classes  of  people.  It  is  believed  that  the  solu- 
tion will  come  by  means  of  a  change  in  the  type  of  secondary 
education.  High  schools  and  academies,  with  good  courses  in 
agricultural  education  for  the  boys  and  domestic  arts  for  the  girls, 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 
COLEBROOK  ACADEMY   BOYS   LEARNING  TO  USE   SEPARATOR 

should  create  an  interest  in  the  farm  and  the  home  and  their  prob- 
lems, and,  by  giving  an  education  which  prepares  for  the  problem 
of  life  under  home  environment,  will  tend  to  check  the  present 
cityward  trend  of  population.  In  this  seems  to  lie  the  solution  of 
one  of  the  most  vital  and,  in  its  consequences,  one  of  the  most  far- 
reaching  problems  facing  our  people  at  the  present  time.  (1 :  25-26) 

High-school  mathematics  adapted  to  rural  needs.  —  The 
general  principles  of  adaptation  to  community  needs  which 
are  expressed  in  this  quotation  affect  the  teaching  of  every 


64  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

subject  in  the  curriculum.  As  an  example  of  this,  note  the 
effect  upon  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  Colebrook  as 
stated  in  the  following  quotation  : 

The  students  of  the  agricultural  course  take  neither  algebra  nor 
geometry.  In  the  first  year  they  have  a  course  in  advanced  arith- 
metic, which  aims  to  be  distinctly  practical.  It  includes  a  review  of 
elementary  arithmetic  and  the  advanced  application  of  the  subject. 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 

COLEBROOK  BOYS  MAKING  BABCOCK  MILK  TEST 

Such  processes  are  taught  as  have  a  direct  relation  to  the  after 
lives  of  the  pupils.  Problems  are  selected  which  deal  with  actual 
situations  and  which  grow  out  of  the  pupil's  experiences.  In  the 
place  of  the  geometry  of  the  second  year  the  agricultural  students 
take  a  course  called  practical  mathematics,  which  includes  three 
lines  of  work  :  (a)  the  algebra  of  the  equation  ;  (b~)  the  application 
of  geometry  to  practical  measurements;  (c)  the  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  surveying.  (1 :  22) 

Students  to  outline  other  examples  of  adaptation.  —  Other 
variations  in  the  material  of  special  subjects,  to  adapt  them  to 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  65 

varying  local  needs,  can  be  outlined  by  students.  For  ex- 
ample, contrast  the  courses  in  domestic  science  in  a  select 
private  secondary  school  for  wealthy  girls  with  the  courses 
in  the  same  subject  for  girls  in  settlement  classes.  Contrast 
the  courses  in  chemistry  in  an  agricultural  high  school  with 
those  in  a  high  school  in  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania.  Contrast 
the  work  in  manual  training  in  rural  and  city  high  schools. 


Courtesy  of  Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 

COLEBROOK  CLASS  SECURING  SAMPLES  OF  SOIL  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS 

Social  needs  vary  between  different  groups  within  the 
same  community  or  institution  ;  subject  matter  should  vary 
accordingly.  — •  The  heading  of  this  paragraph  sets  forth  the 
third  phase  of  variation  in  the  selection  of  subject  matter. 
Between  high  schools  in  the  same  city,  or  even  among  sev- 
eral groups  of  students  within  a  large  cosmopolitan  high 
school,  there  may  be  such  variations  in  the  needs  of  the 
different  groups  that  the  same  subjects  —  English,  mathe- 
matics, science,  etc.  —  should  be  taught  in  different  ways  to 
meet  the  specialized  needs. 


66 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Varied  courses  in  composition  in  a  cosmopolitan  high  schooL 
—  In  the  teaching  of  English  composition  we  find  striking 
examples.  Thus,  in  a  large  cosmopolitan  high  school  (that  is, 
a  school  in  which  a  variety  of  curricula  are  organized,  includ- 
ing general  and  vocational  courses)  the  students  will  be  taught 
composition  in  different  sections,  or  classes.  The  topics  and 
training  with  each  class  will  be  related  definitely  to  its  voca- 
tional specialization  or  general  interests.  Thus,  a  commercial 


Courtesy  o!  Mr.  H.  A.  Brown 

A  LESSON   IN  THE  GREENHOUSE  AT  COLEBROOK  ACADEMY 

group  would  write  business  letters  and  advertisements,  an  in- 
dustrial or  preengineering  group  might  discuss  machinery  or 
bridges  or  similar  topics,  and  a  literary  or  college-preparatory 
group  might  choose  topics  from  literature. 

Courses  in  history  adapted  to  vocational  students.  —  His- 
tory is  another  subject  in  which  the  courses  are  being  dif- 
ferentiated for  different  groups  within  the  same  school. 
Hence  special  attention  is  being  paid  to  the  organization 
of  courses  in  industrial  history  for  students  in  vocational 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  67 

curricula.  Similarly,  there  is  variation  in  nearly  every  sub- 
ject in  relation  to  varying  vocational  aims. 

Science  courses  to  meet  special  needs  of  girls.  —  One  of 
the  most  striking  variations  is  in  the  organization  of  special 
science  courses  for  girls.  In  the  biological  sciences  these 
courses  are  essentially  related  to  physiology  and  hygiene  for 
women.  In  chemistry  the  topics  are  chosen  and  organized 
with  special  reference  to  the  work  in  domestic  science.  In 
general,  the  material  and  methods  in  all  subjects  taught  in 
high  schools  are  being  scrutinized  from  the  standpoint  of  in- 
stituting variations  where  necessary,  in  order  to  provide  for 
the  special  needs  of  girls  and  women  more  definitely  than 
has  been  done  in  the  past. 

Teacher  must  consider  adaptation  of  subject  to  varying 
needs.  —  This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  selection  of 
subject  matter  in  relation  to  varying  social  needs.  Sufficient 
has  been  said  to  demonstrate  that  the  teaching  of  a  given  high- 
school  subject  is  or  should  be  no  longer  the  simple  matter 
chat  it  sometimes  has  been,  when  all  students  were  conducted 
through  a  given  subject  in  exactly  similar  ways.  Instead,  a  suc- 
cessful teacher  is  expected  to  study  social  progress  and  the  de- 
velopments in  his  special  subject  and  to  keep  abreast  with  these 
and  adapt  his  material  to  the  special  needs  of  the  community 
and  of  the  varying  groups  within  the  community  that  he  serves. 

II.   THE  DETERMINATION  OF  RELATIVE  VALUES 

Relative  value  distinguished  from  absolute  value. — If  a 
high-school  teacher  is  committed  to  the  practice  of  selecting 
subject  matter  in  relation  to  varying  social  needs,  he  may 
find,  if  he  is  well  acquainted  with  his  subject  and  has  a  broad 
outlook,  that  the  needs  are  so  numerous,  or  the  subject  matter 
so  rich,  or  the  time  so  limited,  that  he  will  have  to  select 
carefully  from  available  valuable  material  in  order  to  use  that 
which  is  most  valuable  for  the  group  he  is  teaching. 


68  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Spencer  s  classic  statement  of  the  difference.  —  This  ques- 
tion of  relative  values  as  distinguished  from  absolute  values 
has  been  ably  discussed  by  Herbert  Spencer,  from  whom  we 
quoted  in  the  first  part  of  the  chapter.  Spencer's  discussion 
deals  particularly  with  the  curriculum  as  a  whole,  and  is  to  be 
found  in  the  early  part  of  his  essay  entitled  "  What  Knowl- 
edge is  Most  Worth."  It  reads  as  follows  : 

The  question  which  we  contend  is  of  such  transcendent  moment 
is  not  whether  such  or  such  knowledge  is  of  worth/but  what  is  its 
relative  worth  ?  When  they  have  named  certain  advantages  which 
a  given  course  of  study  has  secured  them,  persons  are  apt  to  assume 
that  they  have  justified  themselves,  quite  forgetting  that  the  ade- 
quateness  of  the  advantage  is  the  point  to  be  judged.  There  is, 
perhaps,  not  a  subject  to  which  men  devote  attention  that  has  not 
some  value.  A  year  diligently  spent  in  getting  up  heraldry  would 
very  possibly  give  a  little  insight  into  ancient  manners  and  morals 
and  into  the  origin  of  names.  Anyone  who  should  learn  the  dis- 
tances between  all  the  towns  in  England  might,  in  the  course  of 
his  life,  find  one  or  two  of  the  thousand  facts  he  had  acquired  of 
some  slight  service  when  arranging  a  journey.  Gathering  together 
all  the  small  gossip  of  a  county,  profitless  occupation  as  it  would 
be,  might  yet  occasionally  help  to  establish  some  useful  fact — say, 
a  good  example  of  hereditary  transmission.  But  in  these  cases 
everyone  would  admit  that  there  was  no  proportion  between  the 
required  labor  and  the  probable  benefit.  No  one  would  tolerate 
the  proposal  to  devote  some  years  of  a  boy's  time  to  getting  such 
information,  at  the  cost  of  much  more  valuable  information  which 
he  might  else  have  got.  And  if  here  the  test  of  relative  value  is 
appealed  to  and  held  conclusive,  then  should  it  be  appealed  to  and 
held  conclusive  throughout.  Had  we  time  to  master  all  subjects,  we 
need  not  be  particular.  To  quote  the  old  song : 

Could  a  man  be  secure 

That  his  days  would  endure 

As  of  old,  for  a  thousand  long  years, 

What  things  might  he  know ! 

What  deeds  might  he  do ! 

And  all  without  hurry  or  care. 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  69 

But  we  that  have  but  span-long  lives  must  ever  bear  in  mind 
our  limited  time  for  acquisition.  And  remembering  how  narrowly 
this  time  is  limited,  not  only  by  the  shortness  of  life  but  also  still 
more  by  the  business  of  life,  we  ought  to  be  especially  solicitous 
to  employ  what  time  we  have  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

Teacher  should  distribute  time  according  to  relative  values. 
-The  principle  which  Spencer  proposes  for  determining  the 
selection  of  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum  applies  with  equal 
force  to  the  topics  within  a  subject.  To  carry  out  the  prin- 
ciple, the  teacher  of  a  given  subject  must  make  a  careful 
inventory  of  the  possible  topics,  must  establish  clearly  the 
specific  value  and  purpose  of  each  topic,  and  then  by  com- 
parison arrange  or  grade  the  topics  in  order  of  greatest  to 
least  value.  Having  done  this,  he  should  plan  to  distribute 
the  time  and  energy  in  such  a  way  that  when  the  course  is 
completed,  the  emphasis  will  have  been  distributed  according 
to  the  relative  values  of  the  topics. 

Relative  values  neglected  in  overemphasis  on  early  parts 
of  a  subject.  —  One  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  the  neg- 
lect of  this  principle  is  found  in  the  tendency  to  spend  too 
much  time  on  the  first  parts  of  a  course,  to  the  neglect  of  the 
later  parts.  This  is  especially  pernicious  where  the  earlier 
parts  are  abstract  and  theoretical  and  the  later  parts  concrete, 
practical,  or  applied.  Courses  in  psychology  for  teachers  fur- 
nish one  of  the  best  examples.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  begin 
such  courses  with  long,  elaborate  introductory  discussions  of 
the  organization  of  the  nervous  system  and  of  the  special 
sense  organs  and  sensory  processes.  This  often  consumes  so 
much  time  that  there  is  little  opportunity  left  to  discuss  the 
more  concrete  and  significant  aspects  of  human  nature  and 
human  behavior  in  connection  with  instincts,  habits,  reason- 
ing, language,  and  volition,  and  practically  no  time  is  avail- 
able for  discussing  the  educational  bearings  of  these  topics. 

Overemphasis  of  early  stages  in  history. —  The  same 
tendency  to  overemphasize  the  earlier  aspects  of  a  subject 


70  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

is  found  in  history.  In  the  study  of  American  history  in  the 
grades  we  find  this  illustrated  in  the  waste  of  time  on  explora- 
tions and  discoveries  in  the  sixteenth  century,  with  the  con- 
sequent neglect  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  so-called 
general  history  in  high  school  we  find  it  in  the  overemphasis 
on  ancient  and  medieval  history,  with  the  consequent  neglect 
of  the  development  of  modern  Europe  and  the  relation  of  the 
latter  to  American  history.  In  the  history  of  education  in 
normal  schools  and  colleges  we  find  the  same  overemphasis 
on  Greek  and  Roman  education,  and  the  consequent  neglect 
of  modern  theory  and  practice. 

Example  from  literature.  —  Another  example  of  neglect 
of  the  principle  of  relative  values  is  found  in  the  study  of 
literary  selections  in  high  school.  A  teacher,  losing  sight  of 
the  other  matters  that  are  in  the  course,  is  often  carried  away 
with  the  minute  study  of  some  one  selection,  say  a  play  of 
Shakespeare,  with  the  result  that  other  selections  equally 
worthy  of  time  and  study,  or  possibly  more  so,  are  slighted. 
Hence,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a  teacher  to  arrive  at  the  end 
of  a  course  and  have  to  admit  to  himself  and  the  students 
that  matters  which  should  have  been  taken  up  have  not  been 
touched  upon. 

The  only  way  to  avoid  this  danger  is  to  plan  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  topics  and  appropriate  periods  for  the  whole  term 
in  advance,  and  then  to  keep  constantly  checking  the  prog- 
ress which  is  being  made,  to  determine  whether  it  corresponds 
to  the  plan,  and,  if  it  varies,  whether  the  variation  is  justified. 

Disagreement  concerning  relative  values.  —  Great  differ- 
ences of  opinion  exist  between  teachers  of  the  same  subject 
concerning  the  relative  values  of  different  topics.  Thus,  in  the 
study  of  literature  one  teacher  may  insist  that  the  minute  study 
of  the  details  of  "  Ivanhoe  "  or  "  Macbeth  "  is  more  valuable 
than  such  a  rapid  study  of  these  as  will  permit  of  the  reading 
of  several  other  selections  also.  Another  teacher  may  be  of 
exactly  the  opposite  opinion. 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  71 

Quantitative  measurement  verstis  qualitative  studies  in 
physics.  —  Another  striking  example  is  found  in  the  teaching 
of  physics,  and  concerns  the  relative  value  of  exact  quantita- 
tive measurement  versus  a  more  general  study  of  physical 
phenomena.  The  following  quotation  from  Professor  A.  A. 
Michelson  of  The  University  of  Chicago,  one  of  the  leading 
American  physicists,  presents  this  antithesis. 

It  is  my  belief  that  the  teaching  of  physics  might  be  made  far 
more  attractive  as  well  as  useful ...  if  less  stress  were  placed  upon 
what  has  come  to  be  regarded  by  many  as  its  chief  object,  namely, 
the  science  of  measurements.  ...  I  would  therefore  propose 
for  discussion  the  feasibility  of  a  plan  for  the  teaching  of  physics 
which  avoids  as  far  as  possible  the  use  of  mathematics  of  even  the 
most  elementary  kind,  and  which  gives  to  the  science  of  measure- 
ment only  a  secondary  importance.  ...  It  is  more  important  to 
know  the  nature  of  physical  relations  than  to  know  their  exact  value. 
It  is  of  vastly  greater  value  to  know  that  all  bodies  attract  each  other 
than  to  know  the  law  of  inverse  squares ;  to  know  that  light  is  pro- 
duced by  a  vibratory  motion  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of 
propagation  than  to  be  able  to  calculate  its  wave  length  to  seven 
significant  figures.  (6:  i) 

The  suggestion  made  by  Professor  Michelson  in  this  quo- 
tation is  being  tested  in  the  actual  practice  of  teaching  physics 
in  high  schools  and  is  represented  on  a  large  scale  in  what 
is  known  as  a  "  new  movement "  among  physics  teachers. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  give  further  illustrations  of  the 
application  of  the  standard  of  relative  values  in  the  selection 
of  topics  within  a  given  subject.  It  would  be  an  instructive 
exercise  if  each  teacher  or  prospective  teacher  would  canvass 
the  subject  matter  of  his  particular  subject,  outline  the  par- 
ticular topics  to  be  covered,  determine  their  specific  values 
(that  is,  the  reasons  for  teaching  each),  and  then  rate  them 
according  to  relative  values.  This  rating  might  then  be  com- 
pared with  the  relative  emphasis  given  in  textbooks  or 
advocated  in  discussions. 


72  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

III.    INTENSIVE  TREATMENT  OF  A  FEW  LARGE  TOPICS 

Encyclopedic  tendency  to  be  avoided. —  In  many  subjects 
one  of  the  most  important  principles  in  the  organization  of 
the  material  is  to  avoid  the  encyclopedic  treatment  of  many 
more  or  less  isolated  topics,  and,  instead,  to  center  the  dis- 
cussion around  a  comparatively  few  carefully  selected  large 
topics  or  principles.  Each  of  these  should  be  treated  so  con- 
cretely and  fully  as  to  make  a  lasting  general  impression  upon 
the  minds  of  the  students,  thus  securing  better  understanding 
and  better  retention  of  the  topic.  The  two  subjects  in  which 
the  encyclopedic  tendency  has  been  most  prominent  and  most 
pernicious  in  the  past  are  geography  and  history. 

Ritter  criticized  encyclopedic  tendency  in  geography. — 
This  tendency  as  found  in  the  teaching  of  geography  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  well  described  in  the 
following  quotation  from  Karl  Ritter  (1779— 1859),  the  German 
founder  of  modern  scientific  geography. 

[From  the  three  traditional  divisions,  namely,  mathematical, 
physical,  and  political,]  our  ordinary  textbooks  compile  their  usual 
aggregate  of  facts,  and  each  becomes  after  its  own  pattern  a  mot- 
ley in  miniature.  ...  A  systematic  exposition  of  geography  is  sel- 
dom to  be  found  in  them.  .  .  .  They  are  at  the  foundation  only 
arbitrary  and  unmethodical  collections  of  all  facts  which  are  ascer- 
tained to  exist  throughout  the  earth.  .  .  .  The  facts  are  arranged  as 
the  pieces  of  a  counterpane,  as  if  every  one  existed  in  itself  and  for 
itself,  and  had  no  connection  with  others.  .  .  .  The  beginning  is 
usually  made  with  boundaries,  which  are  generally  most  unstable  and 
uncertain,  instead  of  being  made  with  some  rudimental  fact  around 
which  all  others  arrange  themselves  as  a  center.  .  .  .  These  geo- 
graphical treatises  .  .  .  indicate  knowledge  rather  than  science ;  they 
form  a  mere  aggregation  and  index  of  rich  materials,  a  lexicon  rather 
than  a  true  textbook.  And  therefore  ensues,  despite  the  undenied 
interest  of  the  subject  and  its  high  claims,  the  mechanical  and  un- 
fruitful method  only  too  common  —  the  crowding  of  the  memory 
without  judgment,  without  thought.  (12  :  xxiv) 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  73 

Encyclopedic  tendency  still  persists  in  some  texts.  —  Since 
this  statement  by  Ritter  was  published,  the  organization  of  the 
subject  matter  of  geography  has  improved  as  the  result  of  the 
labors  of  Ritter  and  his  followers.  Hence  we  have  some  text- 
books in  which  the  full  treatment  of  fundamental  geographic 
relations  or  topics  is  provided.  But  in  many  of  the  books  the 
material  continues  to  be  organized  as  it  was  in  the  books 
that  Ritter  criticized,  namely,  with  artificial  political  divisions 
serving  as  the  starting  point  for  the  discussion,  and  with  the 
information  concerning  each  division  set  forth  largely  as 
isolated  items  or  facts. 

Regional  geographies  furnish  an  exception.  —  Exceptions 
to  this  encyclopedic  tendency  in  geography  teaching  are  the 
Oxford  geographies,  edited  by  A.  J.  Herbertson  and  published 
in  England,  and  the  methods  advocated  in  the  books  by 
Charles  McMurry  in  America.  The  Herbertson  geographies 
place  the  emphasis  on  great  "  natural  regions  "  (as  was  done 
by  Humboldt,  Ritter,  Guyot,  and  other  great  geographers  of 
the  nineteenth  century)  instead  of  placing  it  on  political  divi- 
sions. For  example,  in  the  introduction  to  the  study  of  Europe 
the  first  chapters  are  entitled  The  Seas  and  Lowlands,  The 
European  Highlands  and  their  Rivers,  The  Climate  of  Europe, 
Plants  and  Animals,  The  Human  Geography  of  Europe. 
These  chapters  are  followed  by  discussions  of  the  larger  natu- 
ral divisions  of  Europe,  such  as  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
Central  Europe,  the  Alps  regions,  etc.  When  an  example  of 
one  of  these  types  of  regions  has  been  thoroughly  studied,  it 
furnishes  a  basis  for  readily  understanding  and  interpreting 
any  similar  region  in  any  part  of  the  world.  That  is,  the  rela- 
tively complete  study  of  certain  fundamental  geographic  rela- 
tions in  a  typical  example  leaves  a  general  impression  that  may 
be  applied  very  widely  by  the  student  in  his  later  thinking. 
For  a  discussion  of  the  natural  regions  of  the  earth  considered 
as  a  whole,  see  Herbertson's  "Senior  Geography"  (9)  and 
his  paper  on  "  The  Major  Natural  Regions."  (8  :  301-312) 


74  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Type  studies  advocated  by  McMurry.  —  In  America  we 
are  more  familiar  with  this  type  method  in  geography  in  con- 
nection with  the  books  of  Charles  McMurry.  The  general 
pedagogical  principles  involved  are  discussed  at  length  by  the 
McMurry  brothers  in  "The  Method  of  the  Recitation  "  (1903), 
perhaps  the  most  widely  used  and  certainly  one  of  the  best 
books  dealing  with  methods  of  teaching  published  in  America. 
Illustrative  lessons  which  are  printed  in  the  book  show  very 
clearly  what  is  meant  by  the  type  method.  For  example,  on 
pages  17—24  is  printed  a  long  lesson  on  Minneapolis,  which 
is  intended  to  give  pupils  an  understanding  of  the  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing  and  commercial  cities  by  means  of  a 
careful,  detailed  study  of  one  typical  example  and  a  compar- 
ison of  it  with  a  few  other  selected  examples.  Similarly,  on 
pages  2  5  7-269  there  is  a  lesson  on  irrigation  which  provides 
a  comparatively  thorough  general  understanding  of  this  im- 
portant topic  by  means  of  a  careful,  detailed  study  of  one 
irrigation  system  (the  Big  Ditch  near  Denver)  and  a  com- 
parison of  this  with  a  few  other  selected  examples.  These 
sample  lessons  should  be  examined  and  Chapter  X  (pp.  236- 
256),  entitled  The  Value  of  Types,  should  be  read. 

Encyclopedic  tendency  dominant  in  history  textbooks.  — 
History  is  another  subject  in  which  the  encyclopedic  summary 
of  hundreds  of  relatively  isolated  and  meaningless  facts  has 
been  prominent.  This  fact  is  so  patent  that  it  scarcely  needs 
to  be  elaborated.  Simply  call  to  mind  some  of  the  most 
widely  used  historical  textbooks,  and  many  of  them  will  serve 
as  examples  of  the  encyclopedic  tendency.  Instead  of  treat- 
ing a  few  large,  important  issues  in  a  thorough  manner,  so 
that  students  will  get  some  real  understanding  of  historical 
relationships  and  developments,  thousands  of  items  of  infor- 
mation are  provided  on  the  same  dead  level  of  insignificance. 

Robinsons  texts  furnish  an  exception.  —  There  are  some 
pleasing  exceptions  to  this  unfortunate  rule.  Several  of  the 
recent  textbook  treatments  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  75 

Renaissance  are  good  examples.  For  instance,  in  Professor 
J.  H.  Robinson's  "History  of  Western  Europe"  the  chap- 
ters on  The  Crusades,  Heresy  and  the  Friars,  and  The  Italian 
Cities  and  the  Renaissance  are  treatments  of  big  historical 
topics,  or  units,  in  such  a  concrete  manner  as  to  give  the 
student  some  definite  and  lasting  impression  of  what  the 
historical  situation  in  each  case  was  like.  In  his  preface 
Robinson  says  : 

It  has  seemed  best,  in  an  elementary  treatise  upon  so  vast  a  theme, 
to  omit  the  names  of  many  personages  and  conflicts  of  secondary 
importance  which  have  ordinarily  found  their  way  into  our  histori- 
cal text-books.  I  have  ventured  also  to  neglect  a  considerable 
number  of  episodes  and  anecdotes  which,  while  hallowed  by 
assiduous  repetition,  appear  to  owe  their  place  in  our  manuals 
rather  to  accident  or  mere  tradition  than  to  any  profound  meaning 
for  the  student  of  the  subject. 

The  space  saved  by  these  omissions  has  been  used  for  three 
main  purposes.  Institutions  under  which  Europe  has  lived  for 
centuries,  above  all  the  Church,  have  been  discussed  with  a  good 
deal  more  fullness  than  is  usual  in  similar  manuals.  The  life  and 
work  of  a  few  men  of  indubitably  first-rate  importance  in  the 
various  fields  of  human  endeavor  —  Gregory  the  Great,  Charle- 
magne, Abelard,  St.  Francis,  Petrarch,  Luther,  Erasmus,  Voltaire, 
Napoleon,  Bismarck  —  have  been  treated  with  care  proportionate 
to  their  significance  for  the  world.  Lastly,  the  scope  of  the  work 
has  been  broadened  so  that  not  only  the  political  but  also  the 
economic,  intellectual,  and  artistic  achievements  of  the  past  form 
an  integral  part  of  the  narrative.  (13 :  iii) 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  more  textbooks  in  both  history  and 
geography  will  be  constructed  with  the  purpose  of  providing 
an  understanding  of  the  topics  treated,  instead  of  being  con- 
structed as  if  they  were  to  serve  as  miniature  encyclopedias 
for  reference  purposes. 

Type  studies  common  in  biology. — A  subject  in  which  the 
use  of  type  studies  has  received  quite  general  recognition  is 


76  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

biology.    This  point  is  brought  out  in  the  following  quota- 
tion from   Lloyd   and    Bigelow's   "  Teaching  of   Biology." 

There  seems  to  be  no  question  that  an  elementary  course  in 
zoology  in  a  secondary  school  should  be  based  upon  and  consist 
largely  of  the  study  of  a  series  of  types,  or  examples,  representing 
the  most  important  groups  of  animals.  No  other  plan  is  adaptable 
to  the  modern  laboratory  method  of  teaching  the  principles  of  the 
science,  and  concentration  of  attention  upon  a  limited  number  of 
forms  undoubtedly  results  in  the  most  satisfactory  training  in  the 
method  of  scientific  study.  Even  from  the  standpoint  of  the  acqui- 
sition of  information  the  type  method  has  great  advantages  over 
the  alternative  plan  of  dealing  in  generalized  comparative  terms 
with  characteristics  of  a  group  of  animals  with  most  of  which  the 
students  must  be  entirely  unfamiliar.  (10  :  357) 

The  same  general  principle  applies  in  the  teaching  of 
botany,  but  in  order  to  become  familiar  with  the  different 
interpretations  of  the  type  method  in  this  subject  the  student 
should  read  also  pages  106-1 15  of  the  book  from  which  the 
above  quotation  is  taken. 

Examples  of  intensive  study  in  other  subjects.  —  It  is 
in  the  content  subject  that  the  more  intensive  thorough 
treatment  of  fewer  topics  is  especially  important.  The  dis- 
cussion up  to  this  point  has  contained  illustrations  from 
geography,  history,  and  biology.  It  is  a  simple  matter  to 
provide  further  examples  from  chemistry,  physics,  domestic 
science,  and  possibly  from  other  subjects.  Similarly,  in  the 
constructive  subjects,  such  as  art  and  manual  training,  we 
find  a  tendency  to  get  away  from  the  courses  of  study  made 
up  of  isolated  detailed  exercises  and  to  substitute  work  on 
larger  projects. 

Many  supporting  details  necessary  in  intensive  study.  — 
The  part  played  by  details  in  the  intensive  treatment  of 
a  few  topics,  as  contrasted  with  the  part  which  they  play 
in  the  superficial  encyclopedic  treatment  of  many  topics, 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  77 

deserves  special  consideration.  There  will  be  just  as  many 
details  used  in  the  former  method  as  in  the  latter,  but  their 
character  and  purpose  will  be  quite  different. 

In  the  encyclopedic  treatment  of  many  topics  we  find 
thousands  of  details  that  are  more  or  less  isolated  in  char- 
acter. They  do  not  contribute  to  form  a  general  impression 
or  general  idea,  but  often  seem  to  be  on  the  same  dead  level 
of  insignificance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  details  provided 
in  the  intensive  treatment  of  a  few  large  topics  are  carefully 
selected  and  arranged  for  the  purpose  of  contributing  to  the 
better  understanding  of  the  general  topics.  They  may  be 
spoken  of  as  supporting  the  general  principle  or  general 
impression.  They  may  be  said  to  make  the  matter  under 
consideration  meaningful.  Thus,  the  statements,  "  Petrarch 
was  the  leading  Italian  humanist  of  the  fourteenth  century ; 
he  wrote  sonnets  in  the  vernacular,  was  active  in  searching 
for  classical  manuscripts,  and  wrote  a  Latin  poem  entitled 
'  Africa,'  "  are  relatively  meaningless  for  most  pupils,  be- 
cause they  present  a  few  ideas  without  sufficient  filling-in  of 
supporting  details  to  give  them  meaning.  These  statements 
will  be  filled  with  meaning,  however,  if  the  pupil  will  read 
Robinson  and  Rolfe's  "  Petrarch."  Here  he  will  find  the 
account  of  Petrarch's  passion  for  Laura,  and  will  get  the 
sonnets  to  her  placed  in  their  human  setting ;  he  will  learn 
of  Petrarch's  journeys  to  different  places  in  search  of  manu- 
scripts, of  his  adventures  on  the  road  and  at  wayside  inns, 
etc.;  and  he  will  get  an  insight  into  Petrarch's  ambition  to 
emulate  the  ancient  classical  writers  and  to  be  crowned  with 
the  laurel  wreath  at  Rome. 

Details  necessary  to  give  meaning  but  do  not  constitute 
meaning.  —  These  details  will  have  served  their  purpose 
when  they  have  built  up  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  meaning 
of  the  statement  about  Petrarch  with  which  we  began.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  they  be  remembered  in  order  that  this 
meaning  may  be  and  remain  perfectly  clear  and  adequate  for 


78  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

use  in  the  future.  The  understanding  or  appreciation  of  the 
meaning  has  been  built  up  on  the  basis  of  the  details,  but  it 
does  not  consist  of  these  details. 

Details  to  be  forgotten  ;  general  meaning  remembered.  — 
Once  they  have  served  their  purpose,  the  details  may  be  for- 
gotten, and  probably  should  be  forgotten  for  purposes  of  men- 
tal economy.  It  is  commonly  said  that  nine  tenths  of  what 
we  learn  in  school  is  forgotten.  This  is  probably  true.  There- 
fore it  is  especially  important  that  some  method  be  adopted 
that  will  assure  that  the  one  tenth  that  is  remembered  is  worth 
remembering.  As  long  as  encyclopedic,  unrelated,  unorgan- 
ized details  are  taught,  the  part  that  will  be  remembered 
depends  largely  on  chance.  On  the  other  hand,  if  large,  fun- 
damental issues  are  emphasized,  and  the  details  so  selected 
and  arranged  as  to  bring  the  large  issues  to  a  clear  focus, 
we  may  feel  reasonably  sure  that  these  will  be  the  parts 
that  will  be  remembered. 

IV.    ORGANIZATION  IN  TERMS  OF  THE  LEARNER  INSTEAD 
OF  IN  TERMS  OF  THE  SUBJECT  ITSELF 

A  vital  issue  in  high-school  instruction. —  The  fourth 
aspect  of  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  subject  matter 
which  we  shall  consider  concerns  its  organization  in  terms 
of  the  learner  instead  of  in  terms  of  the  subject  itself.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  vital  issues  before  high-school  teachers  at 
the  present  time.  It  is  being  actively  considered,  especially 
in  the  case  of  first-year  science  and  mathematics,  and  deserves 
consideration  in  several  other  subjects,  such  as  chemistry, 
physics,  domestic  science,  and  drawing. 

Rousseau  advocated  psychological  arrangement. — While 
the  consideration  of  this  problem  in  relation  to  instruction  in 
American  high  schools  is  relatively  new,  the  problem  itself 
has  been  discussed  in  books  on  teaching  for  a  long  time. 
Thus  we  find  Rousseau  (1712-1778)  writing  as  follows  in 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  79 

the  "fimile,"  which  was  published  in  1762  and  which  exerted 
a  more  profound  influence  upon  education  than  any  other 
book  written  in  modern  times. 

There  is  a  chain  of  general  truths  by  which  all  the  sciences  hold 
to  common  principles  and  are  developed  in  logical  succession.  This 
chain  is  the  method  of  the  philosophers,  but  in  this  place  we  are 
not  at  all  concerned  with  it.  There  is  a  totally  different  one,  by 
means  of  which  each  individual  object  brings  forth  another  and 
always  points  out  the  one  which  follows  it.  This  order,  which 
through  a  continual  curiosity  stimulates  the  attention  required  of 
us,  is  the  one  which  most  men  follow,  and  especially  the  one 
required  of  children.  (20  :  45) 

Herbart  criticized  basing  sequence  on  stibject  itself, — 
Similarly,  Herbart  (i  776— 1 84 1),  the  great  German  writer  upon 
education,  said  in  his  "  Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine  "  : 

The  teacher  in  charge  of  a  given  branch  of  study  only  too  often 
lays  out  his  work  without  taking  account  of  pedagogical  consider- 
ations. His  specialty,  he  thinks,  suffices  to  suggest  a  plan  ;  the 
successive  steps  in  its  organized  content  will  of  course  be  the 
proper  sequence  for  instruction  to  follow.  In  teaching  a  language 
he  insists  that  pupils  must  master  declensions  and  conjugations  in 
order  that  he  may  read  an  author  with  them  later.  He  expects 
them  to  understand  ordinary  prose  before  he  passes  on  to  elucidate 
the  finished  style  of  a  poet,  etc.  In  mathematics  he  demands  that 
pupils  bring  to  the  subject  perfect  facility  in  common  arithmetic ; 
at  a  more  advanced  stage  they  must  be  able  to  handle  logarithms 
with  ease  before  formulae  requiring  their  use  are  reached,  etc.  In 
history  the  first  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  erect  a  solid  chronological 
framework  to  hold  the  historical  facts  to  be  inserted  afterward. 
For  ancient  history  he  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  ancient  geog- 
raphy, etc.  This  same  view  which  derives  the  principle  determining 
the  sequence  of  studies  from  the  instruction-material  itself,  as  though 
it  had  been  unconditionally  and  finally  settled  that  such  and  such 
things  must  be  taught,  asserts  itself  on  a  larger  scale  in  require- 
ments for  admission  to  higher  grades  or  schools.  .  .  .  The  good 
pupil,  accordingly,  is  one  who  fits  into  and  willingly  submits  to 


80  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

these  arrangements.  The  natural  consequence  of  all  this  is  that 
little  heed  is  paid  to  the  condition  of  attention,  namely,  the  gradual 
progress  of  interest.  (17:  93~94) 

These  quotations  present  the  issue  clearly :  Should  the 
arrangement  of  the  topics  in  any  subject  be  determined  by 
the  relations  of  the  topics  to  each  other  independent  of  the 
learner's  ability  to  grasp  them  and  of  his  interest  in  them, 
or  should  these  considerations  relative  to  the  learner  be  the 
dominant  factors  in  determining  the  arrangement  of  topics  ? 

Elimination  of  high-school  pupils  partially  due  to  organi- 
zation of  courses.  —  This  problem  is  becoming  especially  im- 
portant in  connection  with  the  work  of  students  in  the  first 
year  of  high  school.  The  recently  ascertained  facts  about  the 
elimination  of  students  from  school  are  partially  responsible 
for  the  interest  in  the  problem.  Statistics  show  that  a  large 
proportion  of  grammar-school  pupils  are  willing  to  go  to  high 
school,  but  something  which  they  experience  in  the  first  year 
tends  to  discourage  them,  and  they  drop  out. 

Courses  not  adapted  to  needs,  interests,  or  capacities. — 
One  of  the  principal  factors  in  this  discouragement  is  that  the 
material  in  the  various  subjects  is  not  selected  or  arranged  in 
such  a  way  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  students'  interests.  Con- 
sider a  typical  first-year  high-school  curriculum  of  the  tradi- 
tional type  from  the  standpoint  of  a  vigorous,  ambitious  student 
interested  in  American  life  of  the  twentieth  century :  a 
foreign  language  (ancient  or  modern)  which  bears  no  relation 
to  his  out-of-school  life,  probably  taught  by  a  dry  and  uninter- 
esting grammar-translation  method ;  algebra,  a  formal  juggling 
of  symbols,  a  mathematical  mental  gymnastics,  equally  remote 
from  his  out-of-school  life ;  possibly  botany  or  physiography 
taught  as  pure  sciences  without  reference  to  their  practical 
applications ;  rhetoric  and  English  composition ;  perhaps 
some  gymnastics  and  music,  taught  in  such  a  way  that  many 
of  the  pupils  consider  them  "  mild  forms  of  punishment."  The 
wonder  is  that  as  many  pupils  stay  as  do.  Many  who  would 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  81 

be  discouraged  as  far  as  any  intellectual  or  practical  profit  is 
concerned  stay  because  they  are  attracted  by  the  social  life 
or  the  prestige  that  attaches  to  high-school  graduation. 

Reconstruction  of  first-year  mathematics. —  The  problem 
of  adapting  the  instruction  to  the  needs  and  interests  of  the 
students  has  been  discussed  and  experimented  with  most 
vigorously  in  the  case  of  mathematics.  The  leader  in  the 
endeavor  to  psychologize  this  subject  in  England  is  John 
Perry;  hence  the  effort  is  known  in  that  country  as  the  Perry 
Movement.  In  America  the  most  energetic  experimentation 
has  centered  in  The  University  of  Chicago  under  the  leader- 
ship of  E.  H.  Moore,  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics. 
One  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  movement  is  to  be  found  in 
J.  W.  A.  Young's  "Teaching  of  Mathematics,"  Chapter  VI 
(pp.  87-121),  entitled  The  Perry  Movement:  the  Labora- 
tory Method.  A  conservative  evaluation  and  a  careful  adap- 
tation of  some  of  the  good  points  in  the  movement  are  to 
be  found  in  A.  Schultze's  "  Teaching  of  Secondary  Mathe- 
matics." This  book  is  an  excellent  practical  guide  for  teachers 
of  mathematics  who  wish  to  teach  the  subject  in  a  manner 
that  is  somewhat  adapted  to  the  needs,  capacities,  and  interests 
of  high-school  pupils. 

Applied  problems  appeal  to  practical  interests.  —  One  of 
the  principal  points  of  departure  in  reorganizing  mathematics 
so  as  to  make  it  appeal  to  the  interests  of  the  students  is  to 
relieve  it  of  its  abstractness  and  remoteness  from  real  life  to 
a  certain  extent  by  bringing  in  practical  applications  or  real 
problems.  As  we  noticed  in  the  first  section  of  this  chapter 
(pp.  57-60),  the  possible  applications  of  elementary  math- 
ematics (algebra  and  geometry)  in  ordinary  life  are  relatively 
limited ;  hence  the  possibilities  along  this  line  should  not  be 
overestimated  or  exaggerated.  But  a  slight  amount  of  appli- 
cation may  develop  an  interest  which  is  proportionately  much 
greater.  This  is  true  in  many  subjects,  notably  in  psychology 
as  applied  to  education.  If  the  prospective  teacher  who  is 


82  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

studying  psychology  gets  now  and  then  a  grain  of  applied 
(or  applicable)  knowledge,  the  whole  subject  may  become 
suffused  with  interest.  In  discussing  the  endeavor  to  make 
mathematics  interesting  through  the  use  of  applied  problems 
Schultze  says  : 

Elementary  mathematics  has  not  many  genuine  applications,  but 
still  it  has  some.  The  study  of  these  applications  will  undoubtedly 
increase  the  interest  in  the  subject ;  frequently  it  will  also  lead  to 
a  better  understanding  of  the  subject ;  and  occasionally  it  may  be 
of  practical  value  to  some  student.  .  .  .  We  must  not,  in  order  to 
obtain  practical  value,  deprive  the  subject  of  its  peculiar  character 
of  being  a  subject  of  reasoning.  But,  other  things  being  equal,  that 
topic  deserves  preference  that  can  be  applied  or  that  will  ultimately 
lead  to  applications.  .  .  .  Thus,  we  may  well  dispense  with  some 
of  the  complex  cases  of  factoring  and  study  instead  graphical 
methods,  which  have  a  greater  practical  value  than  any  other 
chapter  of  elementary  mathematics.  .  .  .  Instead  of  substituting 
numbers  in  expressions  formed  at  random  let  us  study  numerical 
substitution  in  formulae  of  practical  value.  (21 :  279-281) 

Teaching  the  use  of  logarithms  and  the  slide  rule  in  con- 
nection with  algebra  is  another  example  of  the  possibility  of 
bringing  out  some  of  the  practical  aspects  of  mathematics. 
In  this  connection  Schultze  says : 

Although  the  increasing  use  of  calculating  machines  has  some- 
what diminished  the  practical  importance  of  logarithms,  the  subject 
is  still  the  most  useful  one  in  elementary  algebra.  Hence  it  is 
necessary  to  make  the  student  so  familiar  with  the  practical  use 
of  logarithms  that  he  can  do  the  work  accurately  and  quickly. 

(21:  35°) 

The  slide  rule  is  a  very  simple  instrument  which  calculates 
mechanically  products,  quotients,  powers,  roots,  etc.  Its  principle 
is  based  upon  the  properties  of  logarithms,  which  are  most  lucidly 
illustrated  by  means  of  this  instrument.  No  teacher  who  is  able  to 
secure  some  slide  rules  should  neglect  to  explain  to  his  students 
the  principle  and  use  of  this  wonderful  little  machine.  (21 :  352) 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  83 

While  these  last  examples  do  not  bear  upon  the  first  year's 
work  in  mathematics,  they  illustrate  the  possibility  of  increas- 
ing the  interest  in  some  of  the  later  parts  of  the  subject  of 
mathematics  by  means  of  practical  applications. 

Unification,  or  mixing,  of  various  parts  of  mathematics. — 
A  second  phase  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  teaching  of 
mathematics  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  and  interests  of 
students  is  expressed  in  the  following  quotation  from  an 
article  by  Professor  D.  E.  Smith  on  "  The  Teaching  of 
Mathematics  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United  States." 

There  is  another  influence  that  is  bound  strongly  to  mold  the 
future,  and  that  is  the  intense  study  of  practical  psychology. 
Teachers  are  asking  why  the  human  mind  should  be  asked  to 
comprehend  certain  exceedingly  abstract  principles  of  geometry 
before  the  much  easier  parts  of  trigonometry  are  mastered ;  why 
the  intricacies  of  advanced  algebra  are  required  before  the  simpler 
parts  of  the  calculus  are  presented ;  and  why,  in  general,  there 
should  be  the  conventional  and  accidental  barriers  maintained  be- 
tween algebra  and  geometry,  and  geometry  and  trigonometry, 
and  the  calculus.  (22  :  210) 

New  types  of  textbooks  in  first-year  and  second-year  mathe- 
matics.— Among  the  best  examples  of  the  endeavor  to  carry 
out  the  suggestions  contained  in  the  foregoing  quotations, 
as  far  as  the  first  and  second  years  of  high  school  are  con- 
cerned, are  the  revised  courses  in  "first-year  mathematics" 
and  "second-year  mathematics"  which  have  been  worked  out 
in  the  high  school  of  The  University  of  Chicago. 

In  the  description  of  this  work  in  the  announcement  of 
the  University  High  School  the  following  statements  occur : 

FIRST   YEAR 

The  text  of  the  first  year  is  "  First- Year  Mathematics."  This 
book,  prepared  by  the  members  of  the  mathematical  department, 
has  been  used  for  seven  years  in  the  classroom.  It  interweaves 
the  more  concrete  and  easier  portions  of  algebra  and  geometry. 


84  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

In  the  first  chapter  the  algebra  work  is  developed  about  the  equa- 
tion, the  axioms  of  the  four  fundamental  processes  are  stated  and 
illustrated  by  concrete  examples,  and  all  transformations  of  equa- 
tions are  made  on  the  basis  of  these  laws.  Algebraic  problems  are 
developed  from  the  laws  of  percentage  and  from  the  sides,  angles, 
and  areas  of  polygons.  The  laws  of  the  lever  and  of  beams  are 
established  by  experiments  in  the  classroom  and  are  made  the 
basis  for  the  developments  of  the  fundamental  processes  and  the 
laws  of  signs.  Drawing  to  scale  gives  many  problems  in  similarity 
of  triangles  and  in  ratio  and  proportion.  Parallel  lines,  perpen- 
diculars, bisectors,  and  other  geometrical  concepts  and  construc- 
tions are  used  to  set  forth  the  notions  and  laws  of  algebra.  The 
pupil  is  early  taught  to  graph  on  cross-section  paper  statistics, 
equations,  and  general  expressions  of  number.  Throughout  the 
course  the  graph  is  made  an  instrument  for  picturing  conditions 
and  laws  and  for  verifying  results.  To  secure  mastery  of  the 
equation  as  an  instrument  for  the  solution  of  problems,  consider- 
able practice  is  given  in  stating  verbal  problems  in  the  form  of  the 
equation  and  in  translating  formal  equations  into  verbal  language. 
To  emphasize  the  applied  features  of  algebra  and  geometry,  as 
well  as  to  prepare  for  work  in  physics,  many  problems  are  taken 
from  the  latter  science,  and  many  formulae  of  physics  are  trans- 
lated into  verbal  language  and  are  also  solved  for  different  sym- 
bols. In  the  study  of  factoring,  application  is  made  at  once  to 
operations  with  fractions  and  the  solution  of  quadratic  and  higher 
equations.  The  operations  with  radicals  are  applied  to  the  obtain- 
ing of  approximate  values  of  incommensurable  parts  of  regular 
polygons  and  circles  and  to  the  verification  of  irrational  roots  of 
equations.  Simultaneous  equations  with  three  or  more  unknown 
quantities  and  a  considerable  body  of  geometrical  theorems  on 
congruency  of  triangles  and  parallelograms  complete  the  text. 

SECOND   YEAR 

In  the  second  year,  "  Second- Year  Mathematics,"  also  prepared 
by  the  department,  is  used.  This  is  a  continuation  of  the  inter- 
weaving of  geometry  and  algebra,  but  with  the  stress  on  geometry. 
The  first  two  years  give  all  the  algebra  usually  taken  in  first-year 
courses,  and  the  geometry  of  the  second-year  courses,  including 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  85 

constructions  with  compasses  and  rule,  proofs  of  the  standard 
theorems  on  equalities,  inequalities,  and  similarity,  areas,  regular 
polygons,  and  circles,  besides  much  practice  in  algebraic  processes 
based  on  such  theorems ;  and  in  connection  with  similar  triangles 
the  notions  of  the  trigonometric  functions  and  their  use  in  the 
solution  of  the  right  triangle. 

Revisions  of  older  books  defer  difficulties  and  introduce 
applied  problems. —  In  addition  to  the  tendency  to  write  new 
textbooks  in  mathematics  from  the  standpoint  of  the  needs, 
interests,  and  capacities  of  high-school  pupils  we  find  some 
of  the  older  textbooks  being  revised  from  this  point  of  view. 
For  example,  in  the  preface  to  the  1911  edition  of  a  well- 
known  first-year  algebra  we  find  the  statement  that  certain 
difficulties  are  deferred  until  the  pupil  is  able  to  cope  with 
them  ;  easy  aspects  of  some  of  the  topics  usually  treated  late 
in  the  course  are  introduced  early  in  the  work  ;  the  problems 
are  based  largely  on  interesting  facts  derived  from  a  variety 
of  sources,  including  physics,  geometry,  and  commercial  life. 
In  addition  to  these  statements,  however,  there  are  others 
which  indicate  that  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  older 
books  are  retained. 

Thus  we  see  that  high-school  mathematics,  which  has  long 
stood  as  the  best  example  of  a  logically  organized  subject,  is 
being  psychologized,  reconstructed,  and  reorganized  in  terms 
of  the  needs,  capacities,  and  interests  of  the  students. 

Reconstruction  of  science  courses.  First-year  general 
science  based  on  pedagogical  considerations.  —  The  course 
in  science  in  the  first  year  of  high  school  furnishes  the  next 
most  striking  example  of  this  psychologizing,  or  reconstruc- 
tive, tendency.  In  general  the  reform  movement  in  science 
has  the  same  characteristics  as  the  movement  in  mathematics. 
Instead  of  separate,  abstract  courses  in  botany,  physiology, 
and  physiography  in  the  first  year,  with  chemistry  and  physics 
in  later  years,  there  is  a  tendency  to  organize  in  the  first 
year  a  general-science  course  which  shall  take  its  point  of 


86  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

departure  from  practical  issues  in  social  life,  in  which  the 
natural  sciences  are  important,  and  then  draw  upon  all  the 
sciences,  both  biological  and  physical,  for  the  material  of 
instruction  relative  to  these  issues. 

Specialist  in  single  science  not  competent  to  organize 
courses. — In  discussing  the  necessity  of  a  general  reconstruc- 
tion in  the  teaching  of  science,  Professor  C.  H.  Judd  says : 

Science  teachers  are  [ordinarily]  not  willing  to  examine  and  dis- 
cuss the  needs  of  their  students  as  a  primary  consideration  in  the 
organization  of  their  courses.  Science  has  a  kind  of  inflexible 
logic  of  its  own  in  the  mind  of  a  mature  teacher  —  has  a  kind  of 
coherency  in  organization  that  is  so  attractive  that  to  break  down 
this  ideal  arrangement  in  any  wise  ...  is  very  repugnant  for  the 
true  scientist.  I  sympathize  with  this  respect  for  the  logic  of 
science.  I  should  be  very  glad  indeed  if  we  could  begin  and  go 
on  without  any  repetition  in  a  coherent  march  through  [a  given 
science]  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the  student  into  exact  knowl- 
edge and  into  precise  forms  of  reasoning — I  say  I  should  be  glad 
if  that  could  be  done  without  leaving  the  path  of  logical  order. 
But  the  fact  of  the  case  is  that  it  cannot  be  done.  .  .  . 

I  think  there  are  some  teachers  who  are  overtrained  in  science ; 
that  is,  I  should  say  they  are  overtrained  in  a  single  science.  .  .  . 
That  these  specialists  should  be  guided  is  as  important  as  that  they 
know  their  subjects.  .  .  .  When  you  get  a  specialist  who  is  so  ab- 
sorbed in  one  subject,  you  have,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  ad- 
ministrator of  a  high  school,  a  very  serious  problem.  It  is  the 
problem  of  organizing  a  course  of  study  for  students  with  a  man 
who  has  forgotten  the  students.  (18  :  91) 

Examples  of  general-science  courses.  —  Two  examples  of 
attempts  to  organize  first-year  general-science  courses  are 
outlined  below.  They  depart  radically  from  the  ordinary 
courses  in  the  separate  sciences,  but  it  is  evident  that  the 
first  course  outlined  is  based  largely  on  the  physical  sciences, 
whereas  the  second  course  outlined  is  based  largely  on  physi- 
ography, physics,  and  the  biological  sciences. 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  87 

The  first  outline  shows  the  chapter  headings  of  one  of  the 
few  books  of  this  kind  that  have  appeared  up  to  the  present 
time  (1914).  (15) 

I.  Heat. 
II.  Temperature  and  Heat. 

III.  Other  Facts  about  Heat 

IV.  Burning,  or  Oxidation. 
V.  Food. 

VI.  Water. 

VII.  Air. 

VIII.  General  Properties  of  Gases. 

IX.  Invisible  Objects. 

X.  Light. 

XI.  Refraction. 

XII.  Photography. 

XIII.  Color. 

XIV.  Heat  and  Light  as  Companions. 
XV.  Artificial  Lighting. 

XVI.  Man's  Way  of  helping  Himself. 

XVII.  The  Power  behind  the  Engine. 

XVIII.  Pumps  and  their  Value  to  Man. 

XIX.  The  Water  Problem  of  a  Large  City. 

XX.  Man's  Conquest  of  Substances. 

XXI.  Fermentation. 

XXII.  Bleaching. 

XXIII.  Dyeing. 

XXIV.  Chemicals  as  Disinfectants  and  Preservatives. 
XXV.  Drugs  and  Patent  Medicines. 

XXVI.  Nitrogen  and  its  Relation  to  Plants. 
XXVII.  Sound. 
XXVIII.  Musical  Instruments. 
XXIX.  Speaking  and  Hearing. 
XXX.  Electricity. 
XXXI.  Some  Uses  of  Electricity. 
XXXII.  Modern  Electrical  Inventions. 

XXXIII.  Magnets  and  Currents. 

XXXIV.  How  Electricity  may  be  Measured. 
XXXV.  How  Electricity  is  made  on  a  Large  Scale. 

In  the  development  of  each  of  the  above  topics  the  book 
gives  practical  illustrations  taken  from  everyday  life.  For 


88  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

example,  the  first  chapter,  on  heat,  contains  a  section  on 
methods  of  heating  buildings,  with  subtopics  as  follows :  open 
fireplaces,  stoves,  hot-air  furnaces,  hot-water  furnaces. 

General-science  course  of  The  University  of  Chicago  High 
School.  —  The  following  outline  gives  the  main  topics  in  a 
general-science  course  that  has  been  constructed  in  the  high 
school  of  The  University  of  Chicago  and  is  now  published 
in  somewhat  modified  form  as  a  textbook.  (14) 

Parti.    The  Air 

I.  Some  Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Air. 

II.  Temperature  Changes  and  the  Seasons. 

III.  The  Water  of  the  Air. 

IV.  The  Weather. 

V.  Composition  of  the  Air  —  Molecular  Theory. 
VI.  Composition  of  the  Air  —  Atomic  Theory. 
VII.  Relation  of  the  Air  to  Chlorophyll  Work. 
VIII.  Dust,  Molds,  and  Bacteria  of  the  Air. 
IX.  Flying  Insects  as  Distributors  of  Bacteria. 

Part  II.    Water  and  its  Uses 

X.  Ice,  Water,  and  Steam. 
XI.  Evaporation  and  Condensation. 
XII.  Melting  and  the  Melting  Point. 

XIII.  Water  Pressures,  Buoyancy,  and  Density. 

XIV.  Climatic  Influences  —  Chicago  and  Lake  Michigan. 
XV.  Commercial  Relations  —  Chicago  and  Lake  Michigan. 

XVI.  Water  Supplies  for  City  and  Country. 
XVII.  Water  and  Sewage  Disposal. 

Part  in.    Work  and  Energy 

XVIII.  Work  by  Running  Water. 
XIX.  Work  and  Machines. 
XX.  Mechanical  Energy. 
XXI.  Heat  and  Work. 
XXII.  The  Sun  as  a  Source  of  Energy. 
XXIII.  Energy  for  Plants  and  Animals. 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  89 

Part  IV.    The  Earth's  Crust 

XXIV.  Effect  of  Natural  Forces  upon  the  Earth's  Surface. 

XXV.  Structure  and  Composition  of  the  Soil. 

XXVI.  Origin  of  the  Soil. 

XXVII.  Soil  Water,  Drainage,  and  Irrigation. 

XXVIII.  Erosion  and  Sedimentation. 

XXIX.  Life  in  the  Soil. 

Part  V.   Life  upon  the  Earth 

XXX.  The  Plant  Covering  of  the  Earth. 
XXXI.  Absorption  from  the  Soil  and  Air  by  Plants. 
XXXII.  The  World's  Food  Supply. 

XXXIII.  Utilization  of  Food  in  the  Plant. 

XXXIV.  The  Nutrition  of  Animals. 
XXXV.  Classification  of  Plants  and  Animals. 

XXXVI.  Reproduction  in  Plants  and  Animals. 
XXXVII.  The  Struggle  for  Existence. 
XXXVIII.  Parents  and  Offspring. 

Advantages  of  a  general-science  course. — The  advantages 
of  a  properly  constructed  and  well-conducted  general-science 
course  in  the  first  year  of  high  school  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows  : 

1.  For  the  great  numbers  of  students  who  do  not  go  be- 
yond the  first  year  it  will  give  an  insight  into  the  various 
sciences  in  their  manifold  applications. 

2.  For  those  students  who  continue  in  high  school  it  will 
develop  an  interest  and  an  insight  that  will  be  helpful  in  their 
election  of  other  science  courses  and  will  illuminate  these. 

3.  For  all  students  it  will   provide  superior  training  in 
scientific  method  and  the  application  of  this  method  to  the 
actual  problems  of  life,  for  instead  of  providing  merely  for 
the  relatively  abstract  study  of  a  single  science,  it  will  require 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  independent  reflective  thinking  in 
connection  with  the  type  of  problems  that  they  will  meet 
out  of  school. 


90  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Logical  quality  of  reconstructed  courses.  —  We  noted  in 
Chapter  II  that  the  terms  culture  and  liberal  education  carry 
a  certain  dignity  and  respect  which  tends  to  be  attached  to 
any  system  of  education  to  which  they  may  be  applied.  Hence, 
in  order  to  secure  such  dignity  and  respect  for  the  newer  types 
of  education,  we  found  it  necessary  so  to  define  these  badges 
of  respectability  as  to  make  them  applicable  to  the  newer  edu- 
cation. The  same  process  is  necessary  in  connection  with  the 
term  logical,  since  to  say  that  a  subject  is  "logically  organized  " 
tends  to  bias  one  immediately  in  its  favor. 

Logical,  progressive  coherency  possible  in  a  practical  out- 
line. —  The  phrase  logical  organization  has  commonly  been 
interpreted  in  terms  of  the  impression  made  by  the  finished 
outline  of  a  course  prepared  by  the  teacher  in  the  form  of 
a  syllabus  or  a  book  to  be  used  as  a  guide  by  the  students 
who  are  to  "study  the  course.  Coherency,  or  connectedness, 
and  organization  in  terms  of  main  divisions  and  subdivisions 
are  usually  the  bases  of  judgment  in  determining  the  logical 
quality  of  the  product  from  this  point  of  view.  If  we  accept 
for  a  moment  this  basis  for  estimating  logical  quality,  it  is 
important  to  notice  that  the  basis  of  coherency,  or  con- 
nectedness, may  be  either  (a)  abstract  in  terms  of  a  single 
subject  or  (b]  practical  in  terms  of  the  ways  in  which  vari- 
ous subjects,  or  fields  of  knowledge,  contribute  to  the  con- 
sideration of  certain  practical  issues.  For  example,  a  textbook 
on  psychology  might  be  considered  logical  from  the  first  point 
of  view  if  its  various  topics  were  so  organized  and  related  as 
to  support  each  other,  so  that  discussions  outlined  in  the 
beginning  would  lead  up  to  later  discussions  and  serve  as 
factors  of  explanation  in  these.  On  the  other  hand,  a  text- 
book on  pedagogy,  like  the  present  volume,  might  be  organ- 
ized logically  from  the  second,  or  practical,  standpoint,  namely, 
from  the  standpoint  of  methods  of  teaching  in  high  school. 
It  might  establish  certain  fundamental  considerations  first, 
which  would  serve  as  factors  of  explanation  in  the  later 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  91 

discussion,  and  it  might  reveal  a  certain  amount  of  progres- 
sive coherency  in  the  treatment  of  its  topics.  The  order  of 
topics  might  be  varied  in  many  ways,  but  in  each  case,  to  be 
considered  logical,  the  progressively  coherent  quality  should 
be  evident. 

General-science  course  may  be  logically  coherent.  —  The 
same  points  apply  in  the  logical  organization  of  reconstructed 
courses  in  high-school  mathematics  or  science.  In  the  latter 
case  certain  practical  issues  could  furnish  the  starting  points, 
and  material  relevant  to  them  could  be  drawn  from  various 
sciences.  These  practical  issues  and  the  selected  scientific 
material  would  not  necessarily  be  a  hodgepodge,  however. 
The  issues  themselves  could  be  arranged  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  present  just  as  attractive  an  example  of  progressive 
coherency  as  any  of  the  abstract  outlines  of  a  single  science. 
Hence  a  general  course  may  be  just  as  logical  from  this  point 
of  view  as  a  course  in  physiography  or  botany  or  physics. 

"  Logical "  may  designate  qualities  of  scientific  thinking.  — 
There  is  another  way  of  thinking  of  the  meaning  of  logical, 
however,  and  that  is  in  terms  of  the  kind  of  thinking  that  the 
student  does.  From  this  point  of  view  a  student  who  memo- 
rizes completely  the  attractively  organized  and  coherent  system 
of  some  textbook  in  chemistry  or  of  a  Euclidean  geometry 
may  not  have  done  any  logical  reflective  thinking  at  all. 
He  may  have  no  appreciation  or  understanding  even  of  the 
steps  of  connectedness  in  the  system  that  he  has  learned. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  student  who  is  presented  with  certain 
problems  concerning  ventilation  or  food  supply,  for  example, 
and  has  to  search  for  relevant  material  from  various  sources, 
may  be  doing  the  highest  grade  of  logical  reflective  thinking. 
If  he  keeps  his  problem  clearly  in  mind,  if  he  searches  for 
evidence,  if  he  evaluates  this  in  an  unbiased  manner,  if  he 
rejects  irrelevant  material,  if  he  arranges  and  organizes  his 
ideas,  if  he  formulates  and  verifies  his  conclusions,  he  is  being 
logical  in  the  highest  sense ;  he  is  becoming  scientific- minded, 


92  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

he  is  acquiring  skill  in  the  use  of  the  scientific  method,  and 
he  is  on  the  right  road  to  become  a  scientist. 

Reconstructed  courses  may  be  logical  in  both  senses. — 
Thus  we  see  that  whether  the  term  logical  be  interpreted 
as  designating  the  quality  of  progressive  coherency  in  the 
teacher's  outline  of  a  course  of  study  or  as  designating  the 
quality  of  the  thinking  done  by  the  pupil,  in  either  case  the  work 
in  reconstructed  mathematics  or  in  first-year  general  science 
may  be  essentially  logical  in  character. 

The  general  principles  of  organization  which  have  been 
discussed  with  special  reference  to  first-year  mathematics  and 
science  apply  also  in  many  other  subjects  and  at  many  stages 
in  school  work.  For  example,  in  the  study  of  physics  we  have 
many  of  the  same  possibilities  that  were  utilized  in  the  out- 
lines on  general  science.  In  domestic  science  it  is  probably 
desirable  to  begin  with  the  study  of  practical  issues  in  cooking 
and  sanitation,  and  then  to  bring  in  from  the  various  sciences 
the  principles  and  experiments  which  have  direct  bearing 
upon  these  issues.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the 
waste  of  time  in  the  special  sciences  upon  topics  that  have  no 
bearing  upon  the  practical  field  for  which  students  are  being 
trained.  Similarly,  courses  in  psychology  for  teachers  should 
grow  out  of  practical  issues  in  teaching.  If  the  opposite  prac- 
tice of  beginning  with  psychology  is  followed,  much  time  is 
wasted  on  topics  that  have  little  or  no  bearing  upon  teaching. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  subject  matter.  —  This  will 
conclude  our  discussion  of  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
the  material  of  high-school  subjects.  The  four  main  points 
that  have  been  treated  in  this  connection  are  :  (i)  subject  mat- 
ter should  be  adapted  to  varying  social  needs  ;  (2)  specific  and 
relative  values  of  topics  should  be  carefully  determined ;  (3)  in 
the  content  subjects  the  intensive  treatment  of  a  few  large 
topics  should  be  substituted  for  the  encyclopedic  treatment 
of  many  small  topics  ;  (4)  the  order  of  topics  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  needs,  capacities,  and  interests  of  the  students. 


SELECTION  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  93 

Up  to  this  point  in  the  book  our  discussion  has  been  con- 
cerned with  three  large  issues  :  first,  the  purposes  of  class- 
room activity,  namely,  health,  information,  habits,  ideals,  and 
interests  as  related  to  the  development  of  efficiency,  good 
will,  and  harmless  enjoyment ;  second,  economy  in  class 
management ;  third,  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  sub- 
ject matter.  These  are  fundamental  preliminary  issues  that 
should  determine  the  point  of  view  of  every  teacher  and  that 
are  of  practical  importance  in  connection  with  every  subject. 

The  next  problem  to  be  attacked  is  how  students  learn 
most  economically  in  the  various  subjects  of  instruction ;  for 
example,  how  do  they  acquire  most  economically  motor  skill, 
the  vocabulary  of  a  foreign  language,  skill  in  reflective  thinking, 
habits  of  enjoyment,  and  skill  in  expression.  Several  chapters 
will  be  devoted  to  these  problems  of  economy  in  learning. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Adapting  subject  matter  to  social  needs —  i.  BROWX,  H.  A.  The 
Readjustment  of  a  Rural  High  School  to  the  Needs  of  the  Community. 
Bulletin  No.  20,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  igi2.  Con- 
crete description  of  reconstruction  of  Colebrook  (N.H.)  Academy. 

2.  DEWEY,  JOHN.    The  School  and  Society.    (The  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1899.)  The  most  influential  modern  statement  of  the 
social  point  of  view  in  the  selection  of  subject  matter. 

3.  SMITH,  D.  E.    The  Teaching  of  Geometry .  (Ginn  and  Company, 
1911.)   Quoted  incidentally  in  the  chapter. 

4.  SNEDDEX,  DAVID.   The  Opportunity  of  the  Small  High  School. 
School  Review,   February,   1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  98-110,  Emphasizes 
serving  local  community  needs. 

5.  SPENCER,  HERBERT.   Education  (1859).    Chap.  i.    Famous  in- 
dictment of  English  classical  secondary  curriculum  as  failing  to  meet 
contemporary  social  needs. 

Relative  values.  —  6.  MICHELSON,  A.  A.  The  Purpose  and  Organi- 
zation of  Physics  Teaching.  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  January, 
1909,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  3-4.  Quoted  incidentally  in  the  chapter. 

7.  SPENCER,  HERBERT.  Education  (\^>^\  Chap,  i,  entitled  What 
Knowledge  is  Most  Worth.  Most  influential  argument  in  favor  of 
considering  relative  values. 


94  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Intensive  treatment  of  fewer  topics.  —  8.  HERBERTSON,  A.  J.  The 

Major  Natural  Regions.  Geographical  Journal,  March,  1 905,  Vol.  XXV, 

pp.  301-31 2.   A  description  of  the  plan  for  teaching  regional  geography. 

9.  HERBERTSON,  A.  J.    The  Senior  Geography.   (The  Clarendon 

Press,  1907.)   An  English  regional  geography. 

10.  LLOYD,  F.  E.,  and  BIGELOW,  M.  A.    The  Teaching  of  Biology. 
(Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1904.)    Pp.  106-115,  357.    A  discussion  of 
the  type  method. 

1 1 .  McMuRRY,  F.  and  C.    The  Method  of  the  Recitation.   (The 
Macmillan   Company,   1903.)    Chap.  x.     Discussion  and  examples  of 
type  studies. 

12.  RITTER,    KARL.     Comparative    Geography.    (American    Book 
Company,   1865.)    P.  xxiv.    Strong  criticism  of   encyclopedic   method 
in  geography. 

13.  ROBINSON,  J.  H.  History  of  Western  Europe.  (Ginn  and  Com- 
pany, 1903.)   Preface.    Criticism  of  encyclopedic  method  in  history. 

Adapting  organization  of  subject  matter  to  students. —  14.  CALD- 
WELL,  O.  W.,  and  EIKENBERRY,  W.  L.  Elements  of  General  Science. 
(Ginn  and  Company,  1914.)  A  sample  textbook. 

15.  CLARK,  BERTHA  M.    General  Science.    (American  Book  Com- 
pany, 1912.)   A  sample  textbook. 

1 6.  DEWEY,  JOHN.    How  We  Think.    (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1900.) 
Chap,  v,  entitled  The  Psychological  and  Logical  Method. 

1 7.  HERBART,  F.    Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine.    (The  Mac- 
millan Company,  originally  published  in  1841.)    Pp.  93-94. 

1 8.  JUDD,  C.  H.    Meaning  of  Science  in  Secondary  Schools.  School 
Science  and  Mathematics,  1912,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  87-98. 

19.  MORRISON,  H.  C.    Reconstructed  Mathematics  in  High  Schools. 
In  The  Thirteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education.   (The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1914.)    Pp.  9-31.    Best 
discussion  of  possibilities  of  organizing  new  courses  in  mathematics 
adapted  to  needs  of  high-school  students. 

20.  ROUSSEAU,  J.  J.    Emile.  (D.  Appleton  and  Company,  originally 
published  in  1 762.)   P.  45. 

21.  SCHULTZE,  A.  Teaching  of  Secondary  Mathematics.  (The  Mac- 
millan Company,  1912.)   A  valuable  manual  of  improved  methods. 

22.  SMITH,  D.  E.   The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  the  Secondary 
Schools  of  the  United  States.    School  Science  and  Mathematics,  1 909, 
Vol.  IX,  p.  21  o.    Quoted  incidentally  in  the  chapter. 

23.  YOUNG,  J.  W.  A.    The  Teaching  of  Mathematics.   (Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  1906.)    Chap,  vi,  entitled  The   Perry  Movement:   the 
Laboratory  Method. 


CHAPTER  V 

TYPES  OF  LEARNING  INVOLVED  IN 
HIGH-SCHOOL  SUBJECTS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter,  i.  In  order  to  choose  the  best 
methods  of  teaching  various  high-school  subjects  it  is  necessary  to 
know  the  most  economical  and  effective  methods  of  carrying  on 
the  various  types  of  learning  involved. 

2.  For  practical  purposes  the  following  types  of  learning  may 
be  distinguished : 

a.  Acquiring  motor  skill. 

b.  Associating  symbols  and  meanings. 

c.  Acquiring  skill  in  reflective  thinking. 

d.  Acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment. 

e.  Acquiring  skill  in  expression. 

Special  methods  in  high-school  subjects  based  on  processes 
of  learning. —  In  order  to  determine  the  correct  methods  of 
instruction  to  be  followed  in  the  various  high-school  subjects 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  most  economical  methods  of 
learning  which  are  involved  in  each  subject.  To  do  this  will 
require  taking  up  a  consideration  of  several  types  of  learning, 
since  the  processes  of  learning  vary  so  much  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  subjects  that  are  being  studied.  Up  to  this  point 
in  our  discussion  we  have  been  concerned  with  certain  general 
principles  of  method  which  are  applicable  in  the  teaching  of 
nearly  all  subjects.  These  principles  have  been  related  to  the 
purposes  of  high-school  instruction,  economy  in  classroom 
management,  and  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  subject 
matter,  and  should  concern  all  high-school  teachers.  Each 
of  the  next  six  chapters,  on  the  other  hand,  will  deal  with 

95 


96  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

certain  special  types  or  aspects  of  learning,  and  the  teacher  of 
only  one  subject,  such  as  manual  training  or  mathematics  or 
composition,  may  be  interested  in  only  one  or  two  of  these 
chapters.  This  chapter  is  intended  to  serve  as  an  introduction 
to  these  somewhat  specialized  discussions. 

Five  types,  or  aspects,  of  learning  outlined. —  For  purposes 
of  this  discussion  we  may  distinguish  roughly  five  types  of 
learning  which  are  prominent  in  high  school,  as  follows : 

1.  Acquiring  motor  skill.  —  This  form  of  learning  is  obvi- 
ously involved  in  gymnastics,  dancing,  manual  training,  and 
laboratory  manipulation.    It  is  less  obvious,  although  really 
just  as  important,  in  learning  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign 
language  and  in  learning  to  sing,  since  these  involve  acquir- 
ing motor  skill  in  the  use  of  the  vocal  organs. 

2.  Associating  symbols  and  meanings. — Thistype  of  learn- 
ing is  most  prominent  in  high-school  in  mastering  the  vocab- 
ulary of  a  foreign  language.    Since  this  constitutes  such  a 
large  part  of  high-school  work,  the  discussion  of  the  most 
economical  methods  of  building  up  associations  is  very  impor- 
tant.   The  process  of  association  is  also  prominent  in  such 
subjects  as  history,  in  which  the  learning  of  a  series  of  facts 
forms  a  large  part  of  the  pupil's  work. 

3.  Reflective  thinking. — Mathematics,  natural  science,  and 
the  grammatical  work  in  the  study  of  a  language  involve  a 
large  amount  of  reflective  thinking,  reasoning,  or  problem- 
solving.    Other  subjects,  however,  may  also  provide  for  more 
or  less  of  this  type  of  mental  activity.    This  is  especially  true 
of  the  social  sciences,  notably  economics,  civics,  and  sociology. 
Another  phase  of  reflective  thinking  is  the  acquiring  of  ab- 
stract and  general  meanings,  especially  in  the  sciences  and  in 
mathematics  and  grammar. 

4.  Acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment. —  Music,  literature,  and 
other  arts,  as  well  as  sports  and  games,  furnish  the  best  exam- 
ples of  this  type  of  learning.    In  our  discussion  of  the  pur- 
poses of  instruction  (on  page  1 7)  we  noticed  that  training  for 


TYPES  OF  LEARNING  97 

harmless  enjoyment  constituted  one  of  the  ultimate  aims  of 
education.  The  special  technique  involved  in  instruction  that 
is  organized  to  attain  this  end  will  be  discussed  in  Chapter  X. 

5.  Training  in  expression. —  This  aspect,  or  type,  of  learn- 
ing presents  the  central  issue  in  oral  and  written  composition, 
dramatization,  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  etc.  It  will  be 
discussed  in  Chapter  XI,  with  special  emphasis  upon  training 
in  composition. 

By  keeping  in  mind  these  five  types  of  learning,  and  the 
importance  of  each  in  high-school  instruction,  the  student 
will  gain  a  general  standpoint  for  studying  the  chapters  that 
immediately  follow.  The  first  of  these  will  be  devoted  to  the 
first  of  the  types  of  learning  enumerated  above,  namely, 
acquiring  motor  skill. 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  V,  see  Exercises  for 
"  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  p.  £55. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL 

Main  points  of  the  chapter,  i .  Acquiring  motor  control  is  impor- 
tant in  gymnastic  and  shop  activities,  in  dancing,  in  musical  technique, 
and  in  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language. 

2.  Psychological  experiments  upon  motor  control  furnish  few 
suggestions  concerning  methods  of  instruction,  because  they  have 
ordinarily  been  conducted  upon  uninstructed  learning. 

3.  There  is  a  great  mass  of  empirical  discussion  concerning  the 
best  methods  of  instruction  to  be  used. 

4.  Practically  the  only  point  upon  which  there  is  agreement  is 
the  necessity  of  good  form.    There  is  often  radical  disagreement 
as  to  what  good  form  is  in  any  given  case. 

5.  Studies  in  the  anatomy  and  operation  of  the  vocal  apparatus 
in  producing  sound  have  led  to  an  exaggerated  emphasis  upon  in- 
struction concerning  the  vocal  movements  in  learning  to  sing  and 
in  learning  to  pronounce  a  foreign  language. 

Motor  control  important  in  various  activities.  —  As  stated 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  acquisition  of  motor  skill  is  the 
principal  type  of  learning  involved  in  gymnastic  exercises,  in 
dancing,  in  shop  activities,  in  some  laboratory  exercises,  in 
mastering  certain  forms  of  musical  technique,  and  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  a  foreign  language.  Typical  examples  in  gym- 
nastics are  learning  to  swing  Indian  clubs,  to  fence,  and  to 
do  the  kip  on  the  horizontal  bar.  In  the  laboratory  and 
shop,  learning  to  bend  and  blow  glass,  to  dissect  animals,  to 
manipulate  pie  crust,  to  file  iron,  and  to  plane  wood  are  ex- 
amples. Acquiring  skill  in  fingering  in  playing  the  piano  or 
violin  and  learning  to  say  ich  or  bose  in  German  are  examples 
from  musical  technique  and  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign 
language  respectively. 

98 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  99 

Questions  of  method  involved.  —  In  determining  the  best 
methods  to  be  used  in  learning  most  economically  and  effec- 
tively to  make  the  correct  movements  in  these  various  activities 
the  following  special  questions  arise  : 

1.  Are  there  certain  best  methods  of  performing  a  given 
act,  to  which  the  learner's  attention  should  be  directed  ? 

2.  (a)   How  useful  are  verbal  directions  or  instructions 
concerning  how  to  make  the  movements  ?    (b}  How  useful 
is  imitation  ? 

3.  Should   the   learner's   attention   be   centered   on   the 
movement  or  on  its  objective  result? 

4.  To  what  extent  is  it  necessary  to  depend  upon  the 
method  of  trial  and  accidental  success  ? 

5 .  To  what  extent  is  it  profitable  to  give  separate  attention 
to  the  learning  of  the  elementary  movements  which  constitute 
a  complex  act  ? 

Experimental  investigations  have  given  little  assistance. — 
These  questions  could  easily  be  experimentally  investigated 
in  psychological  laboratories,  because  the  conditions  of  learn- 
ing in  the  case  of  motor  skill  are  relatively  easy  to  determine 
and  control.  A  scientific  experimental  investigation  in  any 
case  aims  to  simplify,  control,  and  modify  in.  certain  definite 
ways  the  conditions  which  determine  a  given  event  or  series 
of  events,  and  to  measure  exactly  the  effects  of  the  modifica- 
tions. In  some  types  of  learning  (for  example,  in  the  case  of 
acquiring  skill  in  reflective  thinking  or  in  expression,  or  in 
acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment)  the  processes  of  learning  and 
the  determining  conditions  are  so  complex  that  it  is  a  diffi- 
cult problem  to  control  and  measure  them  experimentally ; 
but  in  the  case  of  certain  relatively  simple  acts  of  motor  skill 
the  experimental  investigations  are  easily  conducted,  and  a 
number  have  been  made.  Unfortunately,  however,  most  of 
these  have  concerned  undirected  or  uninstructed  learning; 
that  is,  the  learner  has  been  left  largely  to  himself  to  acquire 
skill  in  the  act  under  investigation.  Consequently,  little 


100  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  relative  efficiency  of  various 
forms  of  instruction  in  modifying  the  learner's  progress. 

Learning  to  juggle  balls  a  typical  example  of  experimenta- 
tion. —  A  good  example  of  the  investigation  of  learning  to 
perform  a  complex  act  is  E.  J.  Swift's  work  on  the  tossing 
and  catching  of  balls.  Five  persons,  technically  known  as 
"  subjects,"  practiced  for  a  good  many  days,  and  the  results 
of  the  practice  were  definitely  measured.  Each  subject  jug- 
gled two  balls ;  that  is,  he  tried  to  keep  both  going  with  one 
hand,  catching  and  throwing  one  while  the  other  was  in  the  air. 
There  were  three  principal  aspects  or  elements  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  skill  in  the  performance  :  namely,  (a)  acquisition  of 
general  control  in  throwing ;  (b}  sureness  in  catching ;  (c]  use 
of  some  special  method  of  throwing  so  as  to  avoid  collisions. 

If  we  consider  Swift's  experiment  in  terms  of  the  general 
questions  raised  above  on  page  99,  we  may  note  the  follow- 
ing points  : 

1 .  Better  methods  of  throwing  and  catching  important.  — 
There  are  certainly  better  if  not  best  methods  of  throwing 
and  catching.    For  example,  to  avoid  collisions,  it  is  better 
to  give  the  balls  a  circular  motion,  so  that  they  go  up  on  one 
line  and  come  down  on  another.    Moreover,  of  the  possible 
circular  motions  it  is  better  to  use  one  from  right  to  left  in- 
stead of  one  in  which  the  balls  are  thrown  up  at  arm's  length 
and  take  such  a  circular  course  as  to  fall  close  to  the  body. 
Hence  a  subject  who  hit  upon  the  right-to-left  or  left-to-right 
circular  movement  early  in  the  experiment  made  rapid  prog- 
ress.   Likewise,  in  catching,  it  is  better  to  let  the  ball  fall  into 
the  palm  held  horizontally  in  front  of  the  body  than  to  catch 
it  "with  the  hand  high  in  the  air  and  the  palm  forward  and 
almost  perpendicular,"  as  was  done  by  one  of  the  subjects, 
with  the  result  that  he  made  relatively  little  improvement 
during  the  month  that  he  used  this  second  method. 

2.  Verbal  directions  help  in  tliis  case.  —  The  possibility 
of  profiting  by  verbal   instructions,   supplemented  perhaps 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  IOI 

by  imitation,  seems  perfectly  evident  in  a  case  like  this. 
Hence  Swift  makes  the  following  statement : 

We  see  in  this  the  value  of  suggesting  good  ways  of  doing  things 
while  the  learning  is  still  in  its  early  stages.  If  the  learner  goes  on 
[without  instruction],  he  will  finally  develop  a  plan  of  his  own,  but 
only  after  a  good  deal  of  wandering,  and  even  then  it  may  not  be 
the  best.  (10:  182) 

3.  Attention  sometimes  on  movement,  sometimes  on  result. 
—  In  some  cases  it  would  seem  that  the  learner's  attention 
might  with  advantage  be  centered  on  the  movement,  and  in 
other  cases  on  the  objective  result.    For  example,  in  the  case 
of  the  poor  method  of  catching  described  above,  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  better  method  would  seem  to  involve  centering 
the  attention  on  the  movement  or  position  of  the  hand.    This 
does  not  mean  that  the  subject  would  look  at  his  hand,  but 
its  position  would  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  in  modifying  the 
method.    On  the  other  hand,  in  the  adoption  of  the  right-to- 
left  circular  method  of  throwing,  attention  would  almost  cer- 
tainly be  centered  on  the  objective  result,  namely,  the  path 
followed  by  the  ball. 

4.  Trial  and  accidental  siiccess   used  in  finer  adjust- 
ments.—  After  full  allowance  is  made  for  the  possibilities 
of  verbal  instruction  and  imitation  in  assisting  the  learner  to 
use  the  best  methods,  there  remains  a  very  large  r61e  to  be 
played  by  the  method  of  trial  and  accidental  success.    This 
becomes  evident  in  the  case  of  tossing  and  catching  balls 
when  attention   is  called  to  the  large  part  played  by  the 
fingers  and  wrist  in  skillful  juggling.    The  finer  adjustments 
made  by  these  parts  do  not  come  clearly  to  mind  at  any  stage 
in  the  learning,  yet  they  are  most  important  in  catching  and 
throwing  the  ball  skillfully. 

5 .  Separate   training  on  elements  not  valuable  here.  - — 
There  can  be  little  question  concerning  the  desirability  or 
undesirability  of  giving  separate  training  on  each  of  the 


102  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

elements  which  constitute  the  complex  act  in  this  case.  By 
omitting  catching  for  the  time  being,  it  would  be  possible  to 
give  separate  attention  to  throwing,  and  vice  versa ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  anyone  would  advocate  this.  To  be  sure, 
efficiency  in  the  act  as  a  whole  depends  to  a  large  extent 
upon  efficiency  in  each  part  of  the  act.  Hence  an  individual 
might  throw  well  but  his  total  efficiency  remain  low  because 
he  caught  poorly.  But  since  his  catching  is  always  to  follow 
upon  his  throwing,  it  would  seem  best  to  strive  to  improve 
his  catching  in  connection  with  the  throwing  instead  of  sepa- 
rately. Here  the  sequence  is  so  intimate,  or  so  certain,  that 
separate  mastery  of  one  of  the  elements  would  seem  to  be 
uneconomical.  There  may  be  cases,  however,  which  we  shall 
discuss  later,  in  which  separate  attention  to  the  elements  of 
a  complex  movement  may  seem  to  be  justified. 

Other  investigations  illustrating  trial  and  error.  —  In 
order  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  part  played  by  the 
method  of  trial  and  accidental  success  in  adult  learning  we 
shall  study  briefly  two  other  examples  from  experimental  psy- 
chology. The  first  is  an  experiment  conducted  by  J.  H.  Bair 
on  learning  to  move  the  ears,  and  the  second  is  W.  F.  Dear- 
born's description  of  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  mirror  writing. 

Learning  to  move  the  ears  a  good  example.  —  Learning 
to  move  the  ears  is  for  most  adults  an  almost  entirely  novel 
feat.  It  is  learned  by  securing  separate  control  of  certain 
movements  of  the  ears  which  may  occur  when  certain 
general  movements  of  the  head  muscles  are  made,  including 
raising  the  brows.  That  is,  the  movement  which  it  is  desired 
to  control  is  first  made  as  a  part  of  a  general  diffuse  move- 
ment of  the  neighboring  muscles,  and  gradually  by  a  process 
of  selection  and  elimination  comes  to  be  made  by  itself.  The 
same  process  of  selection  from  a  more  diffuse  movement 
occurs  in  learning  to  alternate  the  ears,  in  learning  to  raise 
the  brows  without  moving  (or  innervating)  the  ears,  and  in 
learning  to  raise  one  brow  independently  of  the  other. 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  103 

Having  idea  of  movement  did  not  eliminate  trial  and  error, 
—  Bair  experimented  to  determine  whether  passively  experi- 
encing the  movement  would  enable  one  to  make  it.  He 
stimulated  the  appropriate  ear  muscles  of  the  subject  with 
electricity,  thus  making  these  contract  and  move  the  ear. 
He  found  that,  while  this  enabled  the  subject  to  identify  the 
ear  movement  when  he  succeeded  in  making  it  by  trial  and 
accidental  success,  it  did  not  enable  him  to  produce  the  move- 
ment without  going  through  the  process  of  trial  and  acci- 
dental success.  Subjects  who  had  experienced  the  electrically 
stimulated  movement,  however,  took  less  time  in  learning  to 
move  the  ears  voluntarily  than  did  a  group  of  subjects  who 
had  not  had  the  muscle  stimulated  electrically. 

Concerning  the  direction  of  attention  during  the  process 
of  selection  and  elimination  (for  example,  in  learning  to 
move  one  ear  without  moving  the  other)  Bair  says  that  a 
positive  effort  to  inhibit  the  movement  of  one  ear  is  not 
effective,  but  if  the  subject  concentrates  attention  on  the  one 
to  be  moved  XK&  forgets  the  other,  he  gradually  gains  the 
separate  control.  Hence  he  concludes  : 

The  more  closely  the  attention  can  be  directed  to  a  movement 
to  be  made,  and  the  more  nearly  the  part  of  the  movement  desired 
not  to  be  made  can  for  the  time  being  be  forgotten,  the  more 
likely  is  the  desired  movement  to  be  accomplished.  (4 :  487) 

This  point  is  brought  out  more  clearly  in  the  following 

nfatinn    from    Frppman  • 


1  o 

quotation  from  Freeman : 


The  elimination  of  useless  movements,  or  the  selection  of  appro- 
priate ones,  is  one  of  the  fundamental  processes  in  motor  learning. 
A  practical  question  which  may  be  raised  concerning  it  is  whether 
the  result  can  best  be  reached  by  emphasizing  the  movements 
which  are  to  be  selected  or  those  which  are  to  be  eliminated.  In 
general  it  is  much  better  to  fix  attention  on  the  movements  which 
are  to  be  made,  and  allow  the  superfluous  movements  to  drop  out 
of  themselves.  It  is  a  familiar  fact  that  the  bicycle  rider  avoids 


104 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


the  ditch  best  by  keeping  his  attention  on  the  path.  The  nervous 
energy  is  automatically  withdrawn  from  the  channels  leading  to 
the  muscles  not  concerned,  when  the  nervous  channels  to  the 
appropriate  muscles  become  more  open.  Directions  should  be 
positive,  then,  rather  than  negative.  The  pupil  should  be  shown 
what  to  do  rather  than  what  not  to  do.  The  only  exception  to 


Scale     3  in  1ft 


APPARATUS  USED   BY  DEARBORN    FOR   EXPERIMENTING  UPON 
MIRROR  WRITING 

this  rule  appears  when  the  pupil  has  fallen  into  bad  habits  which 
need  to  be  broken  up.  Then  it  may  be  necessary  to  call  attention 
to  the  thing  to  be  avoided.  (16 :  25) 

Trial  and  error,  not  reasoning,  predominant  in  mirror 
wtiting.  —  Dearborn's  experiments  on  the  acquisition  by 
adults  of  skill  in  mirror  writing  illustrate  clearly  the  part 
played  by  trial  and  accidental  success  but  do  not  throw  much 
light  on  the  relative  efficiency  of  methods  of  instruction. 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL 


105 


The  apparatus  used  by  Dearborn  is  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  page  104.  In  discussing  the  experiment  he  says  :. 

There  is  some  advantage  ...  in  an  experiment  which  will  indicate 
that  the  trial-and-error  method  is  in  certain  conditions  regularly  em- 
ployed even  in  adult  human  learning.  The  student  is  apt  to  get 


RESULTS  OF   EFFORTS  OF  ONE  SUBJECT  TO  TRACE  A  STAR  WHILE 
WATCHING    THE    REFLECTION    OF    THE    STAR    AND    OF    HIS    HAND 

IN  A  MIRROR 
Note  his  difficulties  in  getting  away  from  the  lowest  point.   After  Dearborn 

the  impression  from  the  usual  discussion  that  trial  and  error,  as  a 
method  of  learning,  is  confined  in  its  use  to  animals  and  children. 
In  the  experiment  suggested  the  subject  is  directed  to  trace 
out  the  figure  of  a  star  by  means  of  its  image  as  seen  in  a  mirror. 
The  figure  itself  and  the  hand  and  arm  employed  are  concealed 


io6  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

from  direct  view  by  means  of  a  simple  screen,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration  on  page  104,  and  all  visual  guidance  is  secured  solely 
from  the  reflection  in  the  upright  mirror.  In  such  a  test  as  this 
there  is  disturbance  of  the  usual  relation  of  visual  and  motor  factors, 
which  has  to  be  adjusted.  To  one  familiar  with  the  principles  of 
the  mirror  (and  theoretically  we  all  are)  the  problem  is  one  which 
might  very  well  be  reasoned  out.  .  .  .  The  natural  reaction  is,  how- 
ever, not  to  reason  much  about  it,  but  to  make  actual  trial  of  it 
from  the  start.  Typical  results  of  such  a  trial  are  indicated  in  the 
illustration  on  page  105.  (5:  375-377) 

The  possible  influence  of  theoretical  instruction  in  a 
similar  experiment  is  shown  by  Judd  in  a  report  on  the 
results  of  shooting  at  a  target  under  water.  Two  groups  of 
boys  carried  on  the  experiment.  One  group  had  been  in- 
structed concerning  the  apparent  displacement  of  the  object 
through  refraction,  and  the  other  group  had  not.  When  the 
position  of  the  object  was  changed  by  varying  the  amount  of 
water,  the  boys  who  had  been  instructed  concerning  the 
effect  of  the  water  were  able  to  make  better  records  in  shoot- 
ing at  it  than  were  the  boys  who  had  not  been  so  instructed. 

(6:  36-37) 

Kinetoscopic  pictures  of  movements  used  in  instruction. 
—  Up  to  this  point  we  have  considered  the  results  of  psy- 
chological experiments  in  which  (with  the  exception  of  the 
last  one  described)  little  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the 
modifications  which  would  be  effected  in  natural  or  untutored 
motor  learning  by  the  use  of  instructions.  At  the  opposite 
extreme  we  have  the  recent  activities  of  Frank  B.  Gilbreth, 
who,  in  his  new  "  Motion  Study,"  would  provide  the  learner 
or  worker  with  an  elaborate  analysis  of  his  movements  and 
with  suggestions  for  improving  his  efficiency.  The  analysis 
and  suggestions  are  to  be  based  on  kinetoscopic,  or  moving- 
picture,  photographs  of  the  subject's  movements.  The  ac- 
companying photographs  suggest  some  of  the  essential  ideas 
in  the  scheme.  The  kinetoscopic  picture  reveals  in  detail  all 


KINETOSCOPIC    PICTURES    USED    IN    GILBRETH'S    MOTION    STUDY   TO 
INCREASE  SKILL  OF  ARTISANS 

In  the  left-hand  picture  note  the  movement  of  the  workman  which  consumed  about 

one  second  by  the  large  clock 

107 


108  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  movements  made  by  the  subject.  Those  which  are  effec- 
tive and  valuable  can  be  distinguished  from  those  that  are 
ineffective  and  useless  by  an  examination  of  the  moving  pic- 
ture when  thrown  on  a  screen.  The  large  clock  shown  on  the 
films  in  the  picture  has  a  single  hand  which  revolves  once 
in  six  seconds.  By  this  means  it  is  possible  to  calculate  just 
how  much  time  is  wasted  in  useless  movements.  The  results 
of  a  careful  analysis  of  even  so  skillful  and  delicate  an  art  as 
surgery  show  that  a  great  improvement  could  be  effected  in 
the  operations  by  eliminating  waste  motion.  (7:  48-50) 

Empirical  discussions  in  gymnastics,  music,  and  pronuncia- 
tions. —  Leaving  these  experimental  studies  of  the  acquisition 
of  motor  skill,  let  us  consider  the  methods  and  practices 
which  are  found  in  the  various  school  subjects  in  which  motor 
skill  plays  a  part.  Here  we  shall  find  much  empirical  discus- 
sion but  few  scientific  data. 

Gymnastics. — Taking  up  gymnastics,  athletics,  sports,  and 
games  first,  we  find  the  following  points,  in  terms  of  our 
discussion  on  page  99. 

1 .  Good  form  is  emphasized.  —  Great  stress  is  placed  upon 
using  what  are  considered  to  be  the  best  methods  of  performing 
the  acts  in  question.    This  is  known  as  emphasizing  good 
form.    In  football,  for  example,  there  are  considered  to  be  cer- 
tain better  or  best  ways  of  falling  upon  the  ball,  of  carrying  it, 
of  tackling  a  runner,  etc.   Similarly,  in  golf,  in  tennis,  and  on 
the  track,  while  certain  mediocre  or  fairly  good  results  may  be 
achieved  by  various  methods,  in  order  to  compete  with  the 
most  expert  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  methods  that  will  direct 
and  conserve  energy  in  the  most  effective  and  economical  ways. 

2.  Verbal  directions  by   coach  supplement   imitation.  — 
While  the  skilled    coach   or  instructor  may  often  depend 
upon  imitation,  he  also  makes  extensive  use  of  verbal  instruc- 
tions and  directions  which  help  the  learner  to  analyze  the 
movement  or  play  and  to  "  get  the  idea."    This  is  brought 
out  very  strikingly  in  the  occasional  failure  of  the  brilliant, 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL 


109 


skilled,  conscientious  player  when  he  tries  to  be  a  coach, 
and  the  occasional  brilliant  success  of  a  coach  who  is  not 
himself  a  skilled  player. 

3 .  Explicit  analysis  of  movements  sometimes  helpful.  — - 
Such  an  analysis  as  is  referred  to  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph often  involves  explicit  attention  to  the  character  of  the 


©  American  Press  Association 
JERRY  TRAVERS'S  HOLD  FOR  PUTTING  IN  PLAYING  GOLF 

Note  the  peculiar  interlocking  of  the  little  finger  of  one  hand  with  the  index  finger 

of  the  other 

movement  to  be  made.  An  example  of  this  fact  is  furnished 
by  my  own  experience  in  learning  to  do  the  kip,  or  "snap-up," 
on  the  horizontal  bar.  This  trick  consists  in  hanging  by  the 
hands  from  the  bar,  swinging  back  and  forth,  and  then, 
when  the  body  has  reached  the  end  of  the  forward  swing, 
kicking  up  at  an  angle  of  about  90  degrees  to  the  direction 
of  the  trunk  of  the  body.  The  performer's  body  then  "  snaps 
up  "  under  and  behind  the  bar  so  that  he  rests  in  a  vertical 


1 10  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

position  with  the  bar  across  the  front  of  his  body  near  the 
hips.  The  diagram  below  represents  the  stages  in  the  trick. 
It  commonly  takes  students  from  a  month  to  six  months 
to  learn  this  trick.  Some  never  succeed  in  learning  it.  My 
first  instructor  depended  entirely  on  imitation  and  signals. 
He  would  perform  the  trick,  then  ask  the  students  to  try, 
and  we  would  proceed  to  jerk  our  arms,  kick,  and  thrash 
around  in  a  more  or  less  aimless  way.  Sometimes  he  would 
say,  "  Kick  when  I  slap  you."  This  signal  helped  a  few  of 
the  students,  but  most  of  us  continued  to  flounder.  After 

o       a  time  another 

Bar  Bar  Bar  Bar    \      instructor     took 

*7  us  in  hand.  He 
showed  us  the 
trick  and  ex- 
plained it.  He 

Second  Third  Fourth        gaid      "  YOU    do 

position  position  position 

not  need  to  jerk 

STAGES  IN  PERFORMING  THE  KIP  ON  A  HORI-        vour    arrns     O    t 
ZONTAL  BAR  r      . ,      . 

of   their    sock- 
in  the  third  position  i  indicates  the  direction  of  the  kick,  and       *.          -KT       OTPPT 
2  the  direction  in  which  the  body  moves  after  the  kick  ° 

strength  is  re- 
quired. The  whole  trick  is  to  kick  at  the  right  time  and  in 
the  right  direction.  Watch  the  kick."  These  general  remarks 
were  supplemented  by  specific  suggestions  such  as  "  Wait 
longer  before  you  kick.  Kick  more  toward  the  ceiling." 
Having  grasped  the  idea,  many  of  the  students  proceeded 
to  learn  the  trick  after  a  relatively  brief  period  of  trial  and 
accidental  success.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  in  a  case 
like  this  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  idea  merely  through 
observation  or  imitation.  For  example,  the  ordinary  beginner 
commonly  overemphasizes  the  arm  jerk  and  fails  to  observe 
the  importance  of  the  kick. 

4.    Trial  and  error.  —  Further  comment  on  the  part  played 
by  trial  and  accidental  success  in  gymnastic  instruction  is  not 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  ill 

necessary,  since  the  points  made  would  be  the  same  as  in  the 
case  of  tossing  balls  described  above  on  page  101. 

5.  Training  in  elementary  movements  sometimes  helpful. 
—  Separate  drill  on  the  most  elementary  movements  is  some- 
times emphasized  in  gymnastic  systems  which  are  con- 
structed on  the  principle  of  proceeding  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex.  This  separate  exercise  of  elementary  move- 
ments may  be  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  systematic 
training  of  all  sets  of  muscles,  and  in  acquiring  various  ele- 
mentary coordinations  which  may  then  play  a  part  in  more 
complex  coordinations.  Swinging  Indian  clubs  furnishes 
good  examples.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many  cases,  such  as 
the  juggling  of  balls  described  above,  separate  practice  on 
the  elements  is  probably  a  waste  of  time.  In  some  cases  it 
is  almost  impossible,  as  in  turning  a  back  somersault  in  the 
air.  In  this  trick  the  following  movements  are  involved : 
(a)  jumping  vertically,  (b]  jerking  the  knees  up  so  that  they 
strike  the  chest,  (c)  swinging  the  arms  back  over  the  head, 
and  (d]  jerking  the  head  back.  The  turn  in  the  air  is  caused 
by  (<£),  (c},  and  (d).  While  there  may  be  some  advantage  in 
separate  practice  of  each  of  these  to  develop  strength,  there 
is  little  advantage  from  the  standpoint  of  developing  control 
or  coordination. 

Musical  technique.  —  In  the  acquisition  of  motor  control 
in  musical  technique,  as  in  playing  the  violin  or  piano  or  in 
singing,  we  find  the  following  points  : 

Disagreements  concerning  good  form.  —  There  is  strong 
emphasis  upon  correct  method,  or  good  form,  although  con- 
siderable disagreement  may  exist  as  to  what  is  correct.  Thus, 
one  teacher  may  insist  that  his  positions  are  the  only  correct 
ones  to  assume,  while  another  teacher  may  claim  that  the  first 
one  ruins  his  pupils'  chances  by  requiring  such  positions. 
Among  the  more  moderate  discussions  we  find  such  recom- 
mendations as  the  following,  which  occurs  in  Josef  Hofmann's 
book  entitled  "  Piano  Playing." 


112  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Play  always  with  the  fingers,  that  is,  move  your  arms  as  little 
as  possible  and  hold  them  and  the  shoulder  muscles  quite  loosely. 
The  hands  should  be  nearly  horizontal,  with  a  slight  inclination 
from  the  elbows  toward  the  keys.  Bend  the  fingers  gently  and 
endeavor  to  touch  the  keys  in  their  centers  and  with  the  tips  of  the 
fingers.  (11 :  27) 

In  the  chapter  on  Correct  Touch  and  Technique  he  says : 

A  correct  fingering  is  one  which  permits  the  longest  natural 
sequel  of  fingers  to  be  used  without  a  break.  By  earnest  thinking 
every  player  can  contrive  the  fingering  that  will  prove  most  con- 
venient to  him.  But,  admitting  that  the  great  diversity  of  hands 
prohibits  a  universal  fingering,  all  the  varieties  of  fingering  ought 
to  be  based  upon  the  principle  of  a  natural  sequel.  (11 :  35) 

Attention  to  tones  versus  attention  to  movements  illustrated 
in  vocal  technique.  —  In  acquiring  musical  technique  the 
learner's  attention  is  very  often  directed  by  his  instructor 
upon  the  movement  itself,  although  the  objective  results  (the 
tone  or  tones)  are  also  emphasized  in  some  systems.  One  of 
the  best  summaries  of  the  historical  and  scientific  aspects  of 
the  problem  here  presented,  as  far  as  voice  training  is  con- 
cerned, is  D.  C.  Taylor's  "  Psychology  of  Singing."  The 
author  contrasts  (a)  what  he  calls  the  mechanical  methods 
(which  focus  the  attention  of  the  learner  on  his  vocal  appa- 
ratus) with  (b}  those  which  place  the  emphasis  on  the  quality 
of  the  tone  produced  and  the  use  of  imitation  and  trial  and 
accidental  success.  In  this  connection  he  quotes  the  following 
contrast  between  the  two  systems,  written  by  an  author  who 
favors  the  mechanical  method. 

If  a  teacher  says,  "  That  tone  is  harsh ;  sing  more  sweetly,"  he 
has  given  no  method  to  his  pupil.  He  has  asked  the  scholar  to 
change  his  tone,  but  has  not  shown  him  how  to  do  it.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  directs  the  pupil  to  keep  back  the  pressure  of  the 
breath  or  to  change  the  location  of  the  tone,  —  if  he  instructs  him 
in  the  correct  use  of  the  vocal  chords  or  speaks  of  the  position  of 
his  tongue,  of  his  diaphragm,  of  his  mouth,  etc.,  —  he  gives  him 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  113 

method.  The  Italian  teachers  of  the  early  period  of  this  art  had 
so  little  method  that  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed  with 
them.  In  fact,  the  word  method  as  now  used  [in  music]  is  of 
comparatively  modern  origin.  The  founders  of  the  art  of  singing 
aimed  at  results  directly ;  the  manner  of  using  the  vocal  apparatus 
for  the  purpose  of  reaching  these  results  troubled  them  compara- 
tively little.  The  old  Italian  teacher  took  the  voice  as  he  found  it. 
He  began  with  the  simplest  and  easiest  work,  and  trusted  to  patient 


INCORRECT   POSITION  CORRECT  POSITION 

Positions  of  little  finger  illustrated  by  Josef  Hofmann  in  his  book  entitled 
"  Piano  Playing  " 

and  long-continued  practice  to  develop  the  vocal  apparatus.  In  all 
this  there  is  no  method  as  we  understand  the  term.  The  result  is 
aimed  at  directly ;  the  manner  of  getting  it  is  not  known.  There 
is  no  conscious  control  of  the  vocal  apparatus  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  a  certain  result  (12  :  316-317) 

In  commenting  on  this  quotation  Taylor  says  : 

This  sums  up  beautifully  the  external  aspects  of  the  old  Italian 
method,  and  of  modern  [mechanical]  methods  as  well.  .  .  .  But  it 
is  a  mistake  to  say  that  the  old  masters  followed  no  systematized 


114  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

plan  of  instruction.  .  .  .  [They  understood  thoroughly]  the  mean- 
ing of  methodical  instruction.  .  .  .  The  only  important  difference 
between  the  old  and  the  new  systems  is  this :  [the  old]  one  relied 
on  instinctive  and  imitative  processes  for  imparting  the  correct  vocal 
action ;  the  other  seeks  to  accomplish  the  same  result  through  the 
mechanical  management  of  the  vocal  organs.  In  this  regard  the 
advantage  is  all  on  the  side  of  the  old  Italian  method.  (12  :  3 1 7-318) 

Students  who  are  especially  interested  in  vocal  training 
should  read  Taylor's  entire  discussion. 

Disagreement  concerning  emphasis  on  separate  training 
of  elementary  movements.  —  In  musical  instruction  intensive 
study  is  commonly  given  to  the  elementary  movements  (fin- 
gering, vocal  gymnastics,  etc.)  apart  from  their  appearance 
in  complex  compositions.  On  the  other  hand,  many  instructors 
object  to  the  extremes  to  which  this  practice  is  often  carried. 
Further  discussion  of  this  point  will  be  given  in  a  later  chapter, 
in  connection  with  the  topic  of  practice,  or  drill. 

Learning  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language.  —  As  a 
final  example  of  acquiring  motor  skill  we  shall  consider  the 
current  practices  in  learning  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign 
language.  As  far  as  instruction  in  American  high  schools  is 
concerned,  this  topic  has  received  relatively  little  considera- 
tion, inasmuch  as  many  of  the  teachers  do  not  speak  the  lan- 
guage well  and  many  of  those  who  do  speak  it  have  not  given 
any  consideration  to  the  problems  of  teaching  pronunciation. 
In  Europe,  however,  owing  to  the  more  common  use  of  a 
foreign  language  and  to  the  better-trained  teachers  in  some 
of  the  countries,  considerable  attention  has  been  devoted  to 
the  problem  of  training  in  pronunciation.  The  resulting  sys- 
tems, or  methods  of  instruction,  are  becoming  known  and 
copied  in  America.  The  best  bibliographies  of  the  Ameri- 
can material  with  which  I  am  familiar  are  in  Handschin 
(15:  140-149)  and  Bahlsen  (14:  39-41).  The  chief  prob- 
lem of  method  concerns  the  value  of  phonetic  instruction  in 
learning  to  speak  the  language. 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  115 

Description  of  phonetic  schemes.  —  The  more  elaborate 
schemes  of  phonetic  instruction  in  pronunciation  provide  the 
following  :  (a)  Information  concerning  the  anatomy  of  the  or- 
gans of  speech  and  descriptions  of  the  way  in  which  the 
lungs,  larynx,  vocal  chords,  uvula,  palate,  tongue,  nose,  teeth, 
and  lips  operate  in  producing  sounds,  (b)  A  list,  or  series, 
of  the  elementary  sounds  of  the  language,  (c)  A  system  of 
phonetic  transcription  to  represent  these  sounds.  These  sys- 
tems consist  of  the  ordinary  alphabet  with  diacritical  markings 
plus  new  symbols  to  represent  sounds  which  cannot  be  satisfac- 
torily represented  by  the  conventional  symbols,  (d}  Training 
in  pronouncing  the  elementary  sounds  correctly  by  making 
extensive  use  of  the  material  described  under  (a),  (b},  and  (c). 

Phonetic  movement  connected  historically  with  other  move- 
ments. — The  great  interest  which  such  instruction  has  aroused 
in  Germany  is  partially  explained  by  its  connection  with  sev- 
eral other  movements,  among  which  are  the  following :  (a)  The 
investigations  of  physiologists  and  physicists  concerning  the 
production  of  sound.  The  works  of  the  Scotch-American 
A.  M.  Bell  (1819-1905)  (not  the  inventor  of  the  telephone) 
and  of  Helmholtz  (1821-1894),  the  great  German  physicist, 
anatomist,  and  physiologist,  are  especially  noteworthy  in  this 
connection,  (b)  The  desires  of  certain  linguistic  specialists 
and  societies  to  secure  a  more  uniform  pronunciation  of  the 
native  and  foreign  languages,  free  from  the  peculiarities  of 
dialect,  (c}  The  introduction  of  more  vital,  direct,  conversa- 
tional, practical  forms  of  instruction  in  learning  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, in  place  of  the  ordinary  grammar-translation  method. 
(This  movement  will  be  discussed  in  detail  in  the  next  chapter.) 
Value  of  phonetics  distinguished  from  merits  of  other 
movements.  —  It  is  important  to  distinguish  between  (a)  the 
momentum  which  the  phonetic  method  has  acquired  through 
its  association  with  these  other  movements  and  (b}  its  real 
merit  as  an  aid  in  teaching  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage. There  is  no  necessary  connection  between  (a)  and  (b). 


Ii6  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  facts  discovered  by  the  physicists  and  physiologists  con- 
cerning the  production  of  sound  do  not  necessarily  constitute 
the  best  basis  for  teaching  a  normal  person  to  speak.  The 
process  of  learning  pronunciation  is  a  psychological  process, 
not  a  physical  or  physiological  one  ;  hence  data  from  psychol- 
ogy, not  from  physics  or  physiology,  furnish  the  scientific  basis 
for  teaching  pronunciation.  Moreover,  the  desirability  of  a 
more  uniform  national  pronunciation  does  not  prove  that  pho- 
netic instruction  provides  the  most  economical  and  effective 
method  of  learning  pronunciation  ;  nor  does  the  superiority  of 
the  oral,  direct,  objective,  active  method  of  teaching  a  lan- 
guage over  the  grammar-translation  method  prove  the  superi- 
ority of  the  phonetic  method  of  teaching  pronunciation. 

Any  direct  training  in  pronunciation  stiperior  to  former 
neglect.  —  Another  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  any  sys- 
tem of  instruction  which  devotes  special  attention  to  correct 
pronunciation  will  secure  better  results  than  one  that  does 
not.  Most  of  the  older  systems  of  language  instruction  did 
not  aim  at  correct  pronunciation ;  hence  it  was  not  secured. 
But  if  an  instructor  who  can  pronounce  correctly  himself 
works  conscientiously  for  correct  pronunciation  by  his  pupils, 
he  may  secure  it  without  elaborate  phonetic  machinery,  just 
as  the  old  Italian  school  of  voice  instruction  secured  superior 
results  without  the  aid  of  modern  physics  and  physiology. 

Only  moderate  use  of  phonetics  justified  in  America. — 
The  arguments  for  and  against  the  phonetic  method  are  pre- 
sented at  length  by  Bahlsen  (14  :  41-49),  with  certain  con- 
clusions from  his  own  experience  concerning  the  modified 
use  of  it.  Certainly  from  the  standpoint  of  acquiring  a  prac- 
tical working  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language  the  amount 
of  machinery  that  has  been  developed  for  phonetic  instruc- 
tion seems  entirely  too  elaborate.  The  following  conclusion 
by  Bagster-Collins,  in  his  discussion  of  the  teaching  of  Ger- 
man, probably  provides  sufficiently  for  phonetic  instruction  as 
an  aid  in  learning  pronunciation  in  American  high  schools. 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  117 

Imitation  of  the  teacher,  though  not  alone  sufficient  to  insure 
a  proper  pronunciation,  is  the  most  important  means,  and  when- 
ever imitation  fails  to  bring  about  the  desired  result,  practical 
explanation  of  how  the  troublesome  sounds  are  made  must  come 
to  its  aid.  A  teacher  will  undoubtedly,  by  his  study  of  phonetics, 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  usual  systems  of  phonetic  transcrip- 
tions, and  benefit  his  pronunciation  thereby ;  but  any  extended 
use  of  phonetic  texts  in  elementary  work  in  the  study  of  German 
in  America  is  uncalled-for.  I  would  not  imply,  however,  that  I  do 
not  attach  great  importance  to  the  accurate  teaching  of  pronunci- 
ation, or  that  I  think  that  even  a  satisfactory  pronunciation  of 
German  is  easily  acquired.  It  requires,  on  the  contrary,  great  care 
and  patience  from  the  first  to  the  last  day  of  the  course.  The 
foundation  must  be  well  laid  in  the  first  year,  (in  fact,  the  first  few 
weeks  of  the  first  year  are  critical),  and  what  is  learned  then  must 
be  kept  up  to  the  mark,  improved  wherever  possible,  through  un- 
tiring vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  if  poorer  work  is  not  to 
be  found  in  the  upper  than  in  the  lower  classes.  (13  :  49) 

Example  of  simplified  phonetic  scheme.  —  An  interesting 
example  of  a  simplified  scheme  for  phonetic  instruction  in 
German  is  the  one  used  by  Miss  Lydia  Schmidt  in  The  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  High  School.  Miss  Schmidt  studied  for 
a  year  in  Berlin  under  one  of  the  best  teachers  of  phonetics. 
The  scheme  of  phonetic  instruction  used  included  all  of  the 
elements  described  above  on  page  115.  After  several  years 
of  experience  Miss  Schmidt  decided  that  much  of  the  so-called 
scientific,  theoretical  instruction  accompanying  the  phonetic 
training  in  pronunciation  was  a  waste  of  time,  and  that  a 
simple  introduction  based  largely  on  imitation  of  the  teacher 
was  quite  sufficient.  She  wrote  to  her  former  instructor  in 
Berlin  and  found  that  the  latter  had  also  concluded  that  all 
of  the  necessary  instruction  could  be  given  in  a  much  simpler 
form  and  in  ten  practical  lessons.  Miss  Schmidt's  own 
scheme  includes  only  five  fundamental  lessons,  based  on  two 
pages  of  mimeographed  lists  of  words,  of  which  a  few  samples 
are  printed  below. 


118  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

DIE  DEUTSCHEN  LANGEN  UND   KURZEN  VOKALE 

a  Vater,  kam,  fragen,  haben,  schlafen,  Hahn,  Knabe,  Samen,  nahm. 
a  fand,  Land,  krank,  Tante,  Hand,  Arm,  Mann,  Hammer,  Lampe, 

Garten. 
?  geben,  legen,  leben,  streben,  beten,  jener,  treten.  .  .  . 

DIE  DIPHTHONGE 

au  Haus,  Maus,  laufen,  Trauben. 
ei  weiss,  heissen,  bleiben,  Weile.  .  .  . 

KNACKGERAUSCH   (GLOTTAL  CATCH) 

Anna,  Otto,  ach,  Anfang,  Esel,  eben,  Ochs,  offen,  Indien,  Ufer, 
Erich,  Igel,  Immensee,  essen,  Onkel,  Eule,  unser.  .  .  . 

The  complete  list  contains  about  250  words  which  are 
used  to  illustrate  some  forty  sounds.  After  the  introductory 
lessons  are  completed,  attention  is  constantly  given  to  secur- 
ing correct  pronunciation  during  the  later  work,  as  recom- 
mended above  by  Bagster-Collins. 

Tentative  answers  to  questions  of  method  on  page  99.  — 
This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  methods  of  instruc- 
tion to  be  used  in  acquiring  motor  control.  Many  of  the  prob- 
lems of  method  involved  are  covered  by  the  questions  which 
we  formulated  in  the  beginning  of  the  chapter  (p.  99).  As 
a  summary  of  the  points  brought  out  in  the  chapter  in  dis- 
cussing the  special  subjects  of  instruction  which  involve 
motor  skill,  we  may  formulate  the  following  tentative  answers 
to  these  questions. 

I.  In  most  cases  of  motor  skill  there  are  certain  better 
methods  of  performance  which  use  human  energy  or  force 
more  economically  and  effectively  than  others.  The  better 
methods  are  known  as  good  form.  In  many  cases,  however, 
good  form  includes  a  number  of  possible  methods  and  per- 
mits of  considerable  variation  to  provide  for  individual  dif- 
ferences. Fingering  in  playing  the  piano  is  a  good  example. 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  119 

2.  Imitation  of   a   correct   model  is  generally  the  most 
effective  way  of  getting  the  idea  of  the  act  to  be  performed. 
In  some  cases  it  is  helpful  to  provide  verbal  directions  con- 
cerning the  best  way  to  perform  the  act.   There  is  great 
danger  of   overemphasizing  such   directions.     Methods   of 
teaching  vocal   technique  and  pronunciation  furnish   good 
examples  of  such  overemphasis. 

3.  Ordinarily  the  learner's  attention  should  be  centered 
on  the  objective  result  of  the  movement,  not  on  the  moving 
organs.    An  elaborate  analysis  of  the  movements  in  terms 
of  the  anatomy  and  operation  of  the  parts  of  the  body  con- 
cerned is  generally  a  waste  of  time  and  often  prevents  the 
attaining  of  the  best  results.    Musical  technique  and  pronun- 
ciation furnish  good  examples.  Occasionally  explicit  attention 
to  the  organs  involved  in  the  movement  seems  to  be  helpful. 

4.  The  method  of  trial  and  accidental  success  necessarily 
plays  a  large  part  in  motor  learning.  The  process  may  some- 
times be  shortened  considerably  by  suggesting  to  the  learner 
the  use  of  correct  or  better  methods  of  performing  the  act. 
If  these  suggestions  involve  bringing  over,  or  using,  coordi- 
nations which  have  already  been  mastered  in  other  situations, 
and  which  the  learner  can  transfer  voluntarily,  the  saving  may 
be  very  great.    If  the  suggested  methods  involve  extensive 
new  coordinations,  however,  the  process  of  trial  and  error 
will  still  play  a  large  part.    There  is  danger  of  wasting  time 
in  piling  up  suggestions  in  order  to  shorten  the  process.  Again 
musical  technique  and  pronunciation  furnish  good  examples. 

5 .  As  a  rule,  training  upon  elementary  movements  as  they 
are  encountered  in  complex  acts  or  compositions  is  superior  to 
isolated  training  upon  the  elementary  movements.   Frequently 
elementary  difficulties  encountered  in  complex  performances 
may  with  advantage  be  studied  separately  for  a  short  time  and 
then  worked  back  into  the  whole.   A  good  example  is  separate 
training  upon  breathing  out  while  the  face  is  under  water  in 
learning  to  swim  by  the  Australian  crawl  method. 


120  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General,  i.  COLVIN,  S.  S.  The  Learning  Process,  (The  Macmillan 
Company,  1911.)  Pp.  10-23. 

2.  LADD,  G.  T.,  and  WOODWORTH,  R.  S.  Elements  of  Physiological 
Psychology.   (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1911.)    Pp.  555-565. 

3.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.   (A.  G.  Seller,  1905.) 
Pp.  219-234.    Contains  the  best  pedagogical  discussion. 

Experimental  investigations.  4.  BAIR,  J.  H.  The  Development  of 
Voluntary  Control.  Psychological  Review,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  474-510.  An 
experiment  in  learning  to  move  the  ears. 

5.  DEARBORN,  W.  F.    Experiments  in  Learning.  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology,  1910,  Vol.  I,  pp.  373-388.    Describes  experiment 
on  mirror  writing. 

6.  JUDD,  C.  H.    Relation  of  Special  Training  to  General  Intelli- 
gence.   Educational  Review,  June,   1908,  Vol.  XXXVI,  pp.  28-42. 
Experiment  to  show  influence  of  theoretical  instruction  in  acquiring 
motor  skill. 

7.  NOCK,  A.  J.    Efficiency  and  the  High  Brow.    American  Maga- 
zine, March,  1913,  pp.  48-50.    Describes  use  of  kinetoscopic  pictures 
to  increase  skill. 

8.  ORDAHL,  L.  E.    Consciousness  in  Relation  to  Learning.    Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Psychology,  191 1,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  1 58-213.    Experiments 
on  tossing  balls  and  on  left-handed  writing. 

9.  RICHARDSON,  R.  F.    The  Learning  Process  in  the  Acquisition 
of  Skill.    Pedagogical  Seminary,  September,  1912,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  376- 
394.    A  summary  with  bibliography  of  experimental  investigations. 

10.  SWIFT,  E.  J.  Mind  in  the  Making.  (Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
1908.)  Pp.  169-190.  Experiments  on  the  juggling  of  balls. 

Empirical  discussions.  Musical  technique,  ir.  HOFMANN,  JOSEF. 
Piano  Playing,  a  Little  Book  of  Simple  Suggestions.  (Doubleday,  Page 
&  Company,  1908.)  A  delightful  series  of  essays.  See  especially  pp.  34-39. 

1 2.  TAYLOR,  D.  C.  The  Psychology  of  Singing.  (The  Macmillan 
Company,  1908.)  An  interesting  summary  of  the  historical  and  psycho- 
logical aspects  of  voice  training. 

Phonetic  pronunciation.  13.  BAGSTER-COLLINS,  E.  W.  The  Teaching 
of  German  in  Secondary  Schools.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1904.) 
A  very  useful  discussion  of  the  whole  problem  of  language  instruction. 
See  pp.  39-69  on  pronunciation. 

14.  BAHLSEN,  L.  New  methods  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages. 
Teacher  College  Record,  May,  1903,  Vol.  IV.  Also  published  by  Ginn 


ACQUIRING  MOTOR  CONTROL  121 

and  Company  (1905).  A  very  good  discussion,  with  full  bibliography. 
See  pp.  20-49  for  a  discussion  of  phonetics  in  relation  to  the  Reform 
Movement. 

15.  HAXDSCHIX,  C.  H.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the 
United,  States.  Bulletin  No.  j,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
1913.  See  pp.  140-149  for  bibliography  on  phonetics. 

Handwriting.  16.  FREEMAN,  F.  N.  The  Teaching  of  Handwriting. 
(Houghton  Miffiin  Company,  1914.)  While  the  teaching  of  handwriting 
is  not  a  matter  of  special  interest  to  high-school  teachers,  it  is  worth 
considering  as  being  the  one  phase  of  acquiring  motor  skill  in  school 
which  has  been  subjected  to  careful  scientific  experimental  investigation. 
Freeman  summarizes  the  experimental  results,  evaluates  current  prac- 
tices, and  discusses  many  principles  of  motor  learning  that  apply  with 
equal  force  to  learning  other  forms  of  motor  skill. 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  VI,  with  many  practical 
examples  of  methods  of  teaching  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language 
and  vocal  control  in  singing  and  public  speaking,  see  Exercises  for 
"  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E5<S-E62. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS:  LEARNING 
A  FOREIGN  VOCABULARY 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i.  One  of  the  principal  types  of 
learning  in  the  traditional  high  school  is  the  association  of  symbols 
and  meanings,  especially  in  learning  the  vocabulary  of  a  foreign 
language. 

2.  The  ordinary  translation  method  makes  these  associations 
indirectly  via  the  English  symbols ;    hence  it  is  less  economical 
than  the  direct  method,  which  dispenses  very  largely  with  the  use 
of  the  English  symbols  as  intermediate  links. 

3.  Ready-made  systems  of  direct  instruction  are  necessary  for 
inexperienced  teachers.    Modifications  of  the  Gouin  series  system 
are  among  the  best. 

4.  According  to  this  system  the  teacher  is  an  active  demonstrator 
of  meanings  before  the  class.    He  uses  objects,  actions,  sketching 
on  the  blackboard,  charts,  and  various  other  devices. 

5.  Systematic  oral  exercises  are  supplemented  by  easy  reading 
and  the  gradual  development  of  grammatical  usage.    The  use  of 
English  is  almost  entirely  eliminated. 

6.  All  the  conversational  work  must  be  definitely  planned  and 
systematized. 

7.  Pupils  must  be  given  ample  opportunities  to  use  the  language 
in  class. 

Predominant  process  in  foreign-language  instruction.  — 
In  some  aspects  of  high-school  instruction  the  type  of  learn- 
ing process  most  involved  is  the  association  of  symbols  and 
meanings.  The  most  striking  example  is  learning  the  vocabu- 
lary of  a  foreign  language.  The  mental  activity  in  this  case 
consists  largely  in  building  up  thousands  of  connections  be- 
tween English  symbols  and  foreign  symbols,  or  between 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      123 

meanings  and  foreign  symbols.  The  high-school  pupil  pos- 
sesses already  a  large  stock  of  meanings  associated  with 
English  symbols.  The  problem  is  to  build  up  corresponding 
associations  of  these  meanings  with  foreign  symbols. 

Example  of  associating  "gargoyle"  with  its  meaning. — 
An  example  of  the  process  of  establishing  an  association  be- 
tween a  meaning  and  a  symbol  is  the  following  :  If  I  ask  an 
undergraduate  class  in  The  University  of  Chicago  if  they 
know  the  meaning  of  gargoyle,  most  of  them  will  say  they 
do  not.  Yet  many  of  the  latter  really  have  the  meaning  but 
do  not  have  it  connected  with  this  symbol  or  name,  for  if 
I  ask,  "  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  strange  ornamental  fig- 
ures, uncouth  animals  or  men,  on  the  cornices  of  some  of 
the  university  buildings,  particularly  on  the  gate  to  the  Hull 
biological  laboratories  ?  "  many  of  the  students  will  reply 
that  they  are  very  familar  with  them  but  did  not  know  what 
they  were.  By  this  statement  they  usually  mean  that  they 
did  not  know  the  name,  or  symbol,  for  them.  They  had  the 
idea,  or  meaning,  but  not  the  conventional  symbol  for  it. 
To  be  sure,  this  idea,  or  meaning,  could  be  enriched  or 
supplemented  considerably  by  commenting  on  the  fact  that 
the  gargoyles  are  one  feature  of  the  medieval  type  of  archi- 
tecture which  the  university  has  adopted ;  that  some  of  the 
medieval  groups  of  gargoyles  have  become  famous  and  are 
frequently  pictured  ;  that  among  these  famous  groups  are 
those  of  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris ;  that  people 
often  puzzle  over  the  symbolic  meaning  of  particular  gar- 
goyles such  as  the  Cynic  of  Notre  Dame ;  etc.  We  shall 
not  be  concerned  here,  however,  with  this  process  of  en- 
riching meanings,  but  shall  concern  ourselves  simply  with 
the  methods  of  associating  symbols  with  meanings  that  are 
already  possessed  by  the  students. 

Examples  of  associating  situations  and  responses.  —  The 
process  of  associating  meanings  and  symbols  is  one  example 
of  the  more  general  psychological  process  of  associating 


124  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

situations  and  responses.  When  a  person  has  made  a  cer- 
tain response  to  a  given  situation  and  the  response  has  been 
accompanied  by  satisfaction,  the  next  time  the  same  situation 
recurs  the  same  response  will  tend  to  appear.  The  situation 
may  be  any  kind  of  experience  and  the  responses  may  be 
equally  varied,  including  ideas,  emotions,  and  actions.  Thus, 
in  response  to  the  situation  "being  thirsty"  one  may  think, 
"  Where  can  I  get  a  drink  ?  "  or  say,  "  Please  bring  me  a  glass 
of  water."  Examples  of  the  association  of  motor  responses 
with  situations  were  given  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Thus, 
in  tossing  balls  by  the  left-to-right  circular  motion,  to  the  sit- 
uation "  ball  tossed  up  "  there  occurs  the  habitual  response 
"  hand  moved  to  left  to  catch  the  other."  In  the  horizontal- 
bar  example,  to  the  situation  "  body  at  certain  part  of  the 
forward  swing  "  there  occurs  the  response  "  kick." 

Types  of  association  in  reading  and  speaking  a  foreign 
language.  —  In  the  case  of  learning  the  vocabulary  of  a  for- 
eign language  the  following  two  types  of  connections  are 
made  between  situations  and  responses  :  In  reading  the  for- 
eign language  the  situations  consist  of  the  printed  foreign 
symbols  and  the  responses  which  are  desired  consist  of  the 
appropriate  meanings  ;  in  expressing  one's  self  in  the  foreign 
tongue  the  situations  consist  of  meanings  (that  is,  what  one 
desires  to  say)  and  the  desired  responses  consist  of  the  appro- 
priate spoken  or  written  symbols.  Hence  we  may  describe 
the  process  of  acquiring  the  vocabulary  of  a  foreign  language 
as  building  up  mental  connections  between  foreign  symbols 
and  meanings  in  reading,  and  building  up  mental  connec- 
tions between  meanings  and  foreign  symbols  in  expression. 

Translation  method  forms  associations  indirectly  via 
English  symbol. — The  ordinary  method  of  teaching  a 
foreign  language  by  translation,  proceeds  to  secure  the  asso- 
ciations between  foreign  symbols  and  meanings  by  a  round- 
about, or  indirect,  method,  namely,  via  the  English  symbol. 
This  method  may  be  represented  by  the  following  diagrams : 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      125 

Indirect  method  in  reading 
Foreign  symbols  Meaning  (or  idea) 


English  symbols 

Indirect  method  in  expression 
Meaning  (or  idea)  Foreign  symbols 


English  symbols 

Direct  method  dispenses  largely  with  intermediate  English 
link.  —  The  direct  method  of  teaching  a  foreign  language, 
on  the  other  hand,  endeavors  to  dispense  as  far  as  possible 
with  the  use  of  the  English  symbols  as  intermediate  links. 
It  endeavors  to  establish  directly  the  associations  between 
the  foreign  symbols  and  their  meanings.  The  processes  may 
be  represented  by  the  following  diagrams  : 

Direct  method  in  reading 
Foreign  symbols —    »- meaning 

Direct  method  in  expression 
Meaning —    *•  foreign  symbols 

Both  systems  aim  to  develop  ability  to  think  in  the  foreign 
language.  —  The  associations,  or  connections,  represented 
in  the  diagrams  of  the  direct  method  are  the  ones  which  v:e 
are  interested  in  establishing  ultimately  in  the  student's  mind 
in  teaching  him  the  language.  The  use  of  the  English  sym- 
bol as  an  intermediate  step  in  the  indirect  method  is  con- 
sidered, even  by  the  users  of  this  method,  to  be  merely  a 
temporary  device  for  arriving  at  the  more  direct  association. 
Both  systems  aim  to  enable  the  student  eventually  to  think 
in  German  or  French,  or  whatever  the  language  may  be, 
without  recourse  to  the  English  symbols. 


126  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Direct  method  more  economical  than  indirect.  —  The 
greater  economy  of  the  direct  method  as  compared  with  the 
indirect  becomes  apparent  when  we  consider  both  systems 
in  terms  of  the  process  of  association.  When  we  compare 
the  diagrams  given  above,  it  appears  that  two  associations 
must  be  practiced  or  made  by  the  indirect  method  for  every 
one  by  the  direct  method.  Even  when  the  use  of  the  English 
symbol  as  an  intermediate  link  is  only  temporary,  this  is 
probably  uneconomical.  But  when  we  consider  that  each 
time  the  indirect  connection  via  the  English  symbol  is  made 
with  resulting  satisfaction  the  stronger  becomes  the  chance 
that  this  connection  will  persist  and  be  operative  in  the 
future,  we  see  the  immense  waste  that  the  translation,  or 
indirect,  method  may  entail,  for  it  tends  to  enable  the  learner 
to  read  or  express  himself  no  faster  than  he  can  translate. 
This  will  certainly  be  much  slower  than  the  corresponding 
pace  achieved  by  the  direct  method.  Moreover,  when  we 
take  into  consideration  the  large  amount  of  reconstruction 
in  the  order  of  words  that  is  often  necessitated  in  translating 
from  one  language  into  another,  it  would  seem  that  the  in- 
direct method  is  even  more  wasteful  than  is  suggested  by 
the  comparison  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

Possibilities  of  indirect  more  obvious  than  of  direct 
method. — One  reason  why  the  indirect,  or  translation,  method 
is  commonly  used  is  because  its  possibilities  are  so  obvious. 
It  seems  self-evident  that  the  thing  to  do  when  presented 
with  students  who  already  have  an  elaborate  system  of  asso- 
ciations of  English  symbols  with  meanings,  is  to  proceed  to 
utilize  this  system  by  coupling  with  it  the  corresponding 
foreign  symbols.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  easy  to  devise 
offhand  a  scheme  of  instruction  that  will  build  up  directly 
the  associations  between  meanings  and  foreign  symbols  that 
we  want  eventually  to  achieve.  For  one  reason,  our  ordinary 
method  of  arousing  a  meaning  in  another  person's  mind 
is  to  use  the  language  that  he  knows.  If  we  are  deprived  of 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      127 

this  means,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do.  In  spite  of 
this  apparent  difficulty  it  is  possible  to  devise  means  of  in- 
struction which  place  the  emphasis  upon  direct  connections 
of  the  foreign  symbols  with  meanings,  and  which  necessi- 
tate only  occasional  recourse  to  the  use  of  English  symbols 
as  intermediate  links. 

Direct  connections  easily  established  with  objective  expe- 
riences.—  Opportunities  for  establishing  these  direct  connec- 
tions most  easily  are  found  in  using  objects  and  actions  as 
points  of  departure.  If  a  teacher  holds  up  an  object  (for 
example,  a  book)  and  utters  at  the  same  time  the  German 
symbol  (das  Buck},  a  direct  association  is  formed  between 
the  idea  of  the  object  and  the  German  symbol.  To  be  sure, 
other  associations  also  occur,  including  possibly  the  connec- 
tion of  the  object  perceived  with  its  English  symbol  (book), 
and  the  connection  of  the  latter  with  the  German  symbol. 
The  point  to  notice,  however,  is  that  the  direct  connection 
which  we  desire  to  establish  (namely,  between  the  thought 
of  the  object  and  the  German  symbol)  has  been  started  and 
emphasized.  All  of  the  associations  which  we  have  men- 
tioned may  be  represented  by  the  following  diagram : 

(German  symbol)  das  B«<-A >  book  (English  symbol) 

V 


(Object) 

The  possibilities  of  teaching  foreign  common  nouns,  and 
adjectives  of  form,  size,  and  color,  directly,  by  elaborations  of 
the  method  suggested  above,  are  numerous  and  obvious.  In 
some  of  the  European  countries  extensive  sets  of  charts, 
pictures,  lantern  slides,  and  apparatus  have  been  .devised 
for  this  purpose. 

Direct  teaching  of  verbs  emphasized  in  some  systems.  — 
Not  only  nouns  and  adjectives  but  verbs  also  may  be  readily 


128 

taught  by  the  direct  method ;  in  fact,  the  teaching  of  a 
series  of  verbs  has  certain  advantages  according  to  the  ad- 
vocates of  some  direct  systems.  The  chief  advantage  claimed 
is  that  in  a  series  of  actions  directed  toward  some  definite 
end  (for  example,  opening  a  door)  there  is  a  more  or  less 
necessary  sequence.  This  sequence  is  easily  grasped  by  the 
learner  as  a  series  of  pictures,  ideas,  or  meanings,  and  serves 
as  a  simple  and  definite  basis  for  building  up  a  corresponding 
series  of  foreign  words,  phrases,  or  sentences. 

Some  of  the  other  parts  of  speech,  such  as  prepositions  of 
place  and  adverbs  of  manner,  present  no  difficulties  in  direct 
teaching ;  but  others,  such  as  abstract  nouns,  do  present  cer- 
tain difficulties.  In  a  systematic  course,  however,  these  diffi- 
culties may  be  reduced  to  very  small  proportions,  as  will  be 
seen  later  in  the  chapter. 

Direct  method  requires  much  oral  work.  —  Obviously, 
efficient  instruction  by  a  direct  system  requires  much  oral 
work  by  the  teacher  and  oral  practice  by  the  pupils.  Hence, 
the  teacher  must  be  skilled  in  speaking  the  language.  Unfor- 
tunately many  teachers  of  French  or  German  in  American 
high  schools  and  colleges  lack  this  essential  qualification, 
although  they  may  have  a  good  reading  knowledge  of  the 
language  and  understand  its  grammar  thoroughly.  Under 
these  circumstances,  probably  the  best  they  can  do  is  to  use 
the  indirect,  or  translation,  method  to  begin  with.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  many  of  our  large  high  schools  there  are 
teachers  who  speak  German  or  French  fluently  and  are  com- 
petent to  use  a  direct  system,  but  who  often  fail  to  do  so 
because  of  ignorance  of  the  possibilities. 

Is  oral  presentation  more  effective  than  visual? — In  ad- 
dition to  its  advantage  in  providing  direct  associations  be- 
tween meanings  and  symbols,  the  oral  method  of  teaching 
a  foreign  language  might  prove  to  be  even  more  advanta- 
geous if  material  presented  in  oral  forms  would  be  retained 
better  than  material  presented  visually.  Unfortunately  the 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      129 

considerable  number  of  experiments  which  have  been  con- 
ducted to  determine  the  relative  efficiency  of  various  forms 
of  presentation  do  not  agree  in  their  conclusions  ;  hence  they 
do  not  furnish  a  guide  for  practice.  (See  8.) 

Does  mastery  of  pronunciation  delay  progress  in  read- 
ing? —  Even  if  oral  presentation  were  advantageous  from 
the  standpoint  of  retention,  the  reproduction  by  the  student, 
which  ordinarily  accompanies  it,  involves  in  the  case  of  the 
French  language  certain  difficulties  of  pronunciation  which 
might  seem  to  offset  the  advantage.  It  could  be  argued  that  a 
bright,  mature  student  might  learn  to  read  French  fairly  well 
in  six  months,  but  that  it  would  take  much  longer  if  his  train- 
ing in  reading  had  to  wait  upon  a  mastery  of  the  difficulties 
of  pronouncing.  Hence  it  might  be  asked,  Why  delay  the 
accomplishment  of  a  relatively  easy  thing,  namely,  reading 
(which  is  all  that  is  desired  in  many  cases),  in  order  to  master 
a  difficult  process  which  is  not  essential  to  the  purpose? 

Further  facts  based  on  reliable  measurements  are  needed 
before  we  can  give  a  final  answer  to  this  question.  These 
measurements  should  show  (i)  how  long  it  takes  an  average 
class  to  secure  a  reading  knowledge  of  French  by  the  trans- 
lation method,  (2)  how  long  it  takes  to  get  a  fair  mastery 
of  pronunciation,  (3)  how  long  it  takes  a  class  which  uses  a 
direct  method  to  acquire  a  reading  knowledge.  The  answer 
commonly  given  by  the  advocates  of  the  direct  method  is  that 
"  experience  shows  that  superior  results  in  grammar  and  read 
ing  are  secured  by  the  direct  approach."  Until  more  adequate 
evidence  is  presented,  this  position  will  be  assumed  to  be  true, 
and  the  following  discussion  will  be  based  on  this  assumption. 

A  ready-made  direct  method  needed  for  inexperienced 
teachers.  —  A  skilled,  experienced  teacher  may  himself 
develop  from  the  experiences  of  the  pupils  the  material  to  be 
used  in  the  direct  method.  Inasmuch  as  such  teachers  are 
rare  in  American  high  schools,  however,  and  as  much  of  the 
instruction  is  given  by  inexperienced,  relatively  untrained 


130  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

teachers,  it  is  desirable  to  provide  a  ready-made  direct  system 
that  the  teacher  can  use  as  easily  as  a  ready-made  grammar- 
translation  method.  This  is  a  phase  of  educational  reform 
that  is  often  overlooked  by  educational  reformers.  If  they 
wish  their  reforms  to  secure  much  practical  momentum,  it 
is  necessary  to  get  them  definitely  organized  in  the  form  of 
textbooks  or  classroom  materials  that  the  relatively  untrained 
teacher  can  use.  The  persistence  of  many  relatively  inferior 
methods  and  the  vogue  of  many  inferior  fads  and  innovations 
are  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  they  have  been  definitized  and 
commercialized  in  such  a  way  that  any  teacher  may  easily 
take  them  up  and  put  them  into  practice. 

Modifications  of  the  Gouin  system  among  the  best.  —  One 
of  the  best  of  the  direct  systems  provides  such  a  definite  body 
of  material  for  the  teacher  to  use,  but  the  method  of  using 
it  makes  it  somewhat  difficult  to  commercialize  it  profitably. 
This  is  the  Gouin-series  method.  It  consists  primarily  of 
sets  of  connected  conversational  exercises,  which  are  care- 
fully graded  and  organized  so  as  to  develop  systematically 
the  student's  vocabulary,  power  of  expression,  and  grammati- 
cal mastery  of  the  language.  Each  lesson  unit  consists  of  a 
series  of  some  fifteen  to  twenty-five  sentences  which  describe 
or  relate  a  connected  series  of  events. 

Example  of  a  Gouin  series.  —  The  following  is  one  of 
the  first  series  that  might  be  used  in  teaching  English 

to  foreigners : 

I  Go  OUT 

I  walk  to  the  door. 

I  stretch  out  my  arm. 
I  take  hold  of  the  knob. 
I  turn  the  knob. 

I  open  the  door. 
I  let  go  of  the  knob. 
I  walk  out. 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      131 

I  turn  around. 

I  stretch  out  my  arm. 

I  take  hold  of  the  knob. 

I  pull  the  door. 

I  shut  the  door. 


Teacher  presents  series  orally  with  dramatization.  —  The 
teacher  presents  this  series  of  sentences  orally,  broken  up 
into  the  four  parts  as  indicated.  He  parallels  each  sentence 
with  the  corresponding  action  and  uses  supplementary  ges- 
tures to  explain  the  meaning  of  individual  words  such  as  / 
and  door.  He  aims  first  to  impress  clearly  upon  the  minds 
of  the  students  the  series  of  events,  actions,  or  pictures  rep- 
resented by  the  first  four  sentences.  In  order  to  do  this  he 
places  special  emphasis  upon  the  series  of  verbs  used.  Hav- 
ing made  each  sentence  clear  by  means  of  gestures,  and 
having  established  the  series  of  events  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils,  he  repeats  the  series  of  actions  with  the  appropriate 
sentences  three  or  four  times,  until  the  pupils  have  probably 
fixed  them  in  mind. 

He  may  then  call  upon  one  pupil  to  come  before  the 
class  and  simply  go  through  the  actions.  He  may  then  call 
on  another  pupil  to  go  through  the  actions  and  give  the 
appropriate  verbs.  He  may  then  have  a  pupil  go  through 
the  actions  and  repeat  the  corresponding  sentences.  The 
teacher  then  presents  the  next  part  of  the  lesson  after  the 
same  fashion.  Various  modifications  of  this  procedure  may 
be  introduced. 

Subjects  of  other  lessons  or  seties.  —  Other  lessons  have: 
the  following  subjects  :  I  read  a  book.  I  walk.  I  go  down- 
stairs. I  go  upstairs.  I  wash  my  face.  I  shave  myself.  The 
cook  boils  some  water.  The  maid  sets  the  table.  I  seat  my- 
self at  the  table.  I  drink  a  cup  of  tea. 

The  following  series  is  the  first  one  taught  in  the  instruction 
in  elementary  German  at  Miami  University,  Oxford,  Ohio. 


132  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

ICH  LESE  IN  EINEM   BuCH 

Ich  nehme  ein  Buch. 

Ich  nehme  es  in  die  rechte  Hand. 

Ich  offne  es. 

Ich  wende  die  Seiten. 
Ich  suche  die  erste  Seite. 
Ich  finde  die  erste  Seite. 
Ich  lese  den  Titel. 

Ich  sehe  das  Bild  an. 
Ich  blattere  weiter. 
Ich  lese  in  dem  Buch. 

Ich  mache  das  Buch  zu. 

Ich  lege  das  Buch  auf  den  Tisch. 

Conversational  Phrases 

Konnen  Sie  lesen  ?   Ja  ?    Nein  ? 

So  weit.    Ich  danke  Ihnen.    Verstehen  Sie  das  ? 

Wiederholen  Sie  das,  bitte.    Sie  konnen  gehen. 

Imaginary  as  well  as  objective  situations  are  used.  —  It  is 
obvious  that  not  all  of  the  objects  or  actions  involved  in  all  of 
the  series  can  be  actually  provided  in  the  classroom.  By  means 
of  description,  gesture,  and  sketches,  however,  an  imaginary 
situation  is  easily  created,  and  the  pupils  fill  in  with  some 
form  of  imagery  the  details  that  are  not  actually  presented. 

This  is  sufficient  to  suggest  some  of  the  possibilities  of  the 
Gouin  method.  Some  of  the  series  used  in  Europe  can  be 
used  with  little  modification  in  America  to  teach  German  or 
French.  Others  need  to  be  revised  or  varied  to  adapt  them 
to  American  conditions,  to  local  needs,  and  to  the  ages  of 
the  students. 

Modifications  of  Gouin  method  from  Frankfurt.  —  Bagster- 
Collins  gives  the  following  example  of  a  freer  adaptation  of  the 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      133 

series  material  as  seen  in  Frankfurt,  Germany,  in  the  classes 
of  Director  Walter,  one  of  the  greatest  advocates  of  the  direct 
method.  The  German  students  were  studying  English. 

A  boy  was  told  to  describe  a  trip  to  Marburg,  a  la  Gouin. 
[He  proceeded  as  follows:] 

1.  I  go  to  the  door. 

2.  I  open  the  door. 

3.  I  go  out. 

4.  I  go  downstairs. 

5.  I  walk  across  the  hall. 

6.  I  leave  the  house. 

7.  I  am  in  the  street. 

8.  I  see  a  car  passing. 

9.  I  motion  to  the  conductor. 
10.  The  car  stops. 

The  catalogue  of  successive  actions  now  gives  place  to  conver- 
sation more  natural  in  character.  Another  pupil  acts  the  part  of 
the  conductor  and  asks  how  far  he  is  going.  (4  :  82—83) 

Another  example  of  the  modified  Gouin  method  as  used 
in  Frankfurt  is  the  following  : 

As  the  teacher  enters  the  room  .  .  .  the  movements  of  the 
teacher  are  either  described  by  individual  pupils  or  by  the  class 
[as  follows :] 

1 .  You  are  entering  the  room. 

2.  You  are  stepping  onto  the  platform. 

3.  You  are  pushing  back  your  chair. 

4.  You  are  sitting  down. 

5.  You  are  opening  the  inkstand. 

6.  You  are  taking  the  pen. 

7.  You  are  dipping  it  into  the  inkstand,  etc.   (4  :  83) 

Includes  conversational  phrases  for  class  routine.  —  The 
Gouin  method  also  includes  series  of  sentences  to  be  used  in 


134  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  ordinary  routine  of  class  work.  For  students  who  are 
learning  English  these  include  the  following : 

Pay  attention. 

Say  the  sentence. 

Repeat  the  sentence. 

Go  ahead. 

Good ;  very  good. 

I  am  very  well  pleased. 

Is  that  enough  ? 

No,  not  yet. 

Yes,  thank  you. 

Have  you  understood  everything  ? 

Occasions  are  arranged  so  that  pupils  will  be  required  to 
use  these.  For  example,  one  pupil  calls  on  another  and 
says,  "Give  the  next  sentence."  After  the  sentence  is  given, 
another  pupil  may  say,  "Very  good"  or  " I  congratulate  you" 
or  "  How  well  you  repeat  it."  Each  of  these  pupils  is  made 
responsible  during  a  portion  of  the  period  for  contributing 
some  specific  sentence  to  the  conversation. 

Printed  sheets  distributed  of ter  oral  presentation.  —  These 
examples  give  some  notion  of  the  type  of  material  used  by 
the  Gouin  system  and  the  method  of  using  it.  The  difficulty 
of  commercializing  it  is  somewhat  greater  than  in  the  case 
of  a  textbook  method,  inasmuch  as  the  material  is  not  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  students  until  it  has  been  presented  orally 
by  the  teacher.  This  necessitates  having  each  lesson  printed 
upon  a  separate  sheet.  These  sheets  are  kept  unbound.  After 
the  teacher  has  taught  a  given  series  (for  example,  the  one  on 
opening  the  door),  the  printed  sheets  of  the  lesson  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  class.  Each  pupil  copies  it  into  a  blank  book 
at  home,  studies  it,  and  returns  it  next  day,  when  he  is  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  recite  it  completely.  Such  a  procedure 
usually  necessitates  the  mimeographing  or  printing  of  the  sets 
of  lessons  that  are  to  be  used  in  a  given  school.  However, 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      135 

in  view  of  the  discussion  given  above  on  page  39,  this  is  a 
step  that  should  be  taken  if  the  superiority  of  the  educational 
results  is  apparent. 

Reference  to  history  of  Gouin  method.  —  The  teacher  or 
prospective  teacher  of  German  or  French  who  desires  to  begin 
to  use  an  organized  direct  method  should  read  the  article  by 
Professor  C.  H.  Handschin  of  Miami  University,  Oxford, 
Ohio,  which  was  published  in  the  School  Review  for  March, 
1912,  and  is  entitled  "A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Gouin-Series 
System  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages  and  of  its  Use  in  the 
United  States."  Later  articles  may  be  found  in  the  Modern 
Language  Journal. 

Another  valuable  source  of  suggestions  for  using  direct 
methods  is  E.  W.  Bagster-Collins's  excellent  manual  of  method 
entitled  "  The  Teaching  of  German  in  Secondary  Schools  " 
(4).  The  general  suggestions  offered  in  the  book  apply  to 
the  teaching  of  French  as  well. 

Objective  oral  lessons  primarily  preparatory  to  reading.  — 
Inasmuch  as  learning  to  read  a  foreign  language  is  much 
more  important  for  Americans  than  learning  to  speak  it,  the 
relation  of  direct  oral  methods  to  learning  to  read  should  be 
made  clear.  This  relation  is  brought  out  by  Bagster-Collins 
in  the  following  quotations. 

In  spite  of  the  objections  we  have  raised  to  making  an  oral 
command  of  the  language  anything  more  than  a  subordinate  aim 
(compared  with  the  general  aim  —  reading),  we  must  not  forget 
that  conversational  exercises  occupy  an  important  place  in  modern 
language  teaching,  pedagogically  considered ;  although  not  to  be 
regarded  as  an  end  in  themselves,  they  are  an  indispensable  means 
to  an  end.  Experience  teaches  us  that  a  just  proportion  of  time 
spent  on  oral  exercises  gives  a  firmer  grasp  of  the  grammar  and 
vocabulary.  (4:23-24) 

This  relation  of  oral  work  in  the  foreign  language  to  learn- 
ing to  read  is  brought  out  in  the  following  quotation  from 
Handschin's  article. 


136  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

This  method  does  away  with  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue  in 
the  classroom,  and  it  gives  Sprachgefuhl  [language  feeling].  In 
the  Miami  adaptation  of  the  Gouin  method  one  hundred  lessons 
(of  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  sentences  each)  in  German,  and 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  in  French,  are  taught.  This  number 
is  considered  sufficient  to  give  Sprachgefuhl.  Here  the  plan  differs 
from  Gouin's  in  that  his  plan  was  to  teach  the  entire  vocabulary 
of  the  foreign  language  by  means  of  the  series  before  allowing  the 
student  to  go  on  to  literary  study.  In  the  Miami  plan  the  reading 
of  an  easy  text  is  begun  about  the  second  week.  In  the  teaching 
of  grammar  Gouin  is  forsaken,  and  the  grammar  is  taught  induc- 
tively, many  devices  of  the  reform  method  being  used,  such  as 
reproducing  the  lesson  in  various  persons,  numbers,  and  tenses,  etc. 
After  the  principal  forms  have  been  taught  inductively,  a  regular 
grammar  is  taken  up  little  by  little.  In  reading-texts,  likewise,  the 
reform  textbooks  are  given  the  preference.  The  advanced  work 
is  conducted  as  in  other  schools,  except  that  the  foreign  language 
is  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  classroom."  (6  :  174-175) 

Systematic  mastery  of  all  phases  of  language  provided.  — 
This  quotation  suggests  the  gradual  systematic  mastery  of  the 
foreign  language  in  all  its  aspects  by  beginning  with  a  cor- 
rect, direct,  objective,  oral  approach.  A  small  working  vocab- 
ulary having  been  acquired  in  the  first  few  weeks,  reading 
is  begun,  but  not  translation.  The  reading  being  simple,  it 
may  be  discussed  and  rehearsed  in  the  foreign  tongue.  New 
words  can  often  be  explained  by  gesture,  synonym,  reference 
to  the  context,  or  discussion  in  the  foreign  language.  Occa- 
sionally it  will  be  necessary  to  give  the  English  equivalent, 
but  in  such  a  case  the  foreign  word  immediately  gets  its  set- 
ting or  meaning  in  the  foreign  context,  and  the  tendency  to 
think  of  the  English  equivalent  does  not  persist  very  long. 
Meanwhile  the  oral  series  lessons  are  continued  and  correct 
grammatical  usage  established.  As  the  general  grammatical 
terms  become  useful  they  are  introduced  in  the  foreign  lan- 
guage. Very  few  general  grammatical  statements  or  rules 
will  be  necessary.  At  all  stages  of  the  work  charts  and 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      137 


HTNTEB 


VOR 


objective  devices  of  all  sorts  are  used.  One  of  these  charts  is 
shown  below  and  is  intended  to  teach  the  list  of  German  prep- 
ositions (an,  auf,  in,  hinter,  neben,  vor,  uber,  unter,  zwischeri) 
which  govern  either  the  accusative  or  the  dative.  The  mean- 
ings of  the  prepositions  are  suggested  directly  by  their  posi- 
tions on  the  picture  of  the  wagon  (except  for  neben  and  an), 
and  the  device  is  helpful  in  providing  a  means  of  almost 
instant  recall. 

Grammatical  tisage  established  by  the  direct  method.  — 
The  general  principles  of  association  upon  which  this  chapter 
is  based  are  further  illustrated  by  the  training  in  grammatical 
usage  provided  in 

TffifR 

the  direct  system  \AUF 

of  instruction.  If 
we  think  of  gram- 
matical usage  in 
terms  of  associa- 
tions, it  is  clear 
that  the  associa- 
tions that  we  desire  to  build  up  are  associations  between  words 
in  sentences.  This  is  true  in  the  case  of  all  grammatical  re- 
lations such  as  the  relations  between  the  forms  of  adjectives 
and  nouns,  the  forms  of  verbs  and  subjects,  etc.  This  being 
the  case,  it  is  evident  that  extensive  training  in  actual  use 
of  the  forms  in  their  natural  connections  is  much  more  im- 
portant than  the  study  of  tabulated  forms  in  connections 
which  are  unlike  the  associations  that  occur  in  the  actual 
use  of  the  language.  An  example  of  such  specific  training 
in  grammatical  usage  in  learning  German  is  given  by  Bagster- 
Collins  in  the  following  words  : 

The  method  will  be  largely  oral.  Instead  of  asking  questions 
about  grammar  or  being  content  with  listening  to  the  recitation  of 
paradigms,  we  will  talk  grammar.  That  is  to  say,  we  will  arrange 
a  kind  of  conversation,  rather  oral  exercise  in  the  form  of  question 
and  answer,  of  such  a  nature  that  the  manner  of  the  question  will 


IN 

-1 

-/ZWISCHEN 

xXx                   \Qy     NEBEN 
UNTER                  AN 

138  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

force  the  pupil  to  employ  the  grammatical  point  which  the  teacher 
wishes  to  emphasize.  For  example,  suppose  one  wishes  to  teach 
the  weak  declension  of  the  adjective,  more  particularly  one  case  — 
the  accusative  singular.  For  nouns  let  us  take  objects  lying  on  the 
teacher's  desk,  things  with  [the  German  name  of]  which  the  pupils 
are  very  familiar,  so  that  they  can  concentrafe  their  attention  on 
the  one  point  to  be  learned.  Our  material,  for  the  present,  will  be 
pencils  of  various  colors,  books,  and  chalk.  It  should  be  made 
clear  to  the  class  what  the  teacher  wishes  done.  It  is  understood 
also  that  they  are  always  to  answer  in  complete  sentences.  If  the 
class  has  learned  the  forms  of  the  weak  declension  [which  would 
have  been  taught  gradually  in  the  series  material],  the  teacher  can 
simply  ask  the  first  question ;  if  not,  of  course,  he  will  have  to 
answer  the  first  question  himself  in  order  to  start  the  class. 

Welchen  Bleistift  habe  ich  in  der  Hand  ? 

Sie  haben  den  roten  Bleistift  in  der  Hand. 

Welchen  Bleistift  habe  ich  jetzt  in  der  Hand  ? 

Sie  haben  den  blauen  Bleistift  in  der  Hand. 

Was  nehme  ich  jetzt  in  die  Hand  ? 

Sie  nehmen  die  weitfe  Kreide  in  die  Hand. 

Fraulein  M.,  nehmen  sie  die  rote  Kreide.  Welche  Kreide  nimmt 
Fraulein  M.  ? 

Sie  nimmt  die  rote  Kreide. 

Worauf  lege  ich  jetzt  das  braune  Buch  ? 

Sie  legen  das  braune  Buch  auf  den  Tisch  (auf  den  groflen 
Tisch,  etc.).  (4:124-125) 

Supplementary  cautions.  Direct  teacher  must  be  active 
and  alert.  —  Finally,  if  teachers  are  going  to  use  the  direct 
method,  it  is  important  that  they  observe  certain  cautions  which 
are  not  essentially  related  to  the  general  point  of  this  chapter 
but  which  it  will  be  well  to  emphasize  here.  The  first  point 
to  keep  in  mind  is  that  the  direct  teacher  is  an  active  dem- 
onstrator of  meanings.  This  means  that  during  much  of 
the  instruction,  especially  during  the  first  few  months,  he  will 
be  on  his  feet  most  of  the  time,  active  and  alert,  using  all 
possible  devices,  including  actions,  objects,  sketching  on  the 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      139 

blackboard,  etc.,  to  secure  attention  to  the  meanings.  Under 
these  circumstances  a  tall  reading  stand  upon  which  to  place 
the  material  to  which  he  refers  is  much  better  than  a  desk. 
If  he  is  teaching  a  Gouin  series,  even  if  he  feels  fairly  sure 
that  he  has  it  memorized,  it  is  well  to  have  it  on  the  stand 
for  reference,  for,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  it  is 
important  to  repeat  it  exactly  the  same  every  time  during  its 
oral  presentation,  in  order  to  avoid  introducing  interfering 
associations  into  the  pupil's  learning. 

All  conversational  work  must  be  definitely  planned,  — 
The  other  two  cautions  to  which  attention  should  be  given 
can  be  quoted  to  advantage  from  Bagster-Collins.  The  first 
concerns  definite  planning.  He  says  : 

In  order  to  derive  the  greatest  good  from  colloquial  exercises, 
they  should  be  clearly  planned  to  do  definite  work.  We  talk  with 
a  purpose  and  not  simply  to  hear  our  own  voices.  The  work  in 
speaking  should  at  every  turn  be  vitally  connected  with  the  other 
work  of  the  class.  It  should  not  be  regarded  as  something  outside, 
or  at  the  most  loosely  linked  with  the  main  system  —  a  sort  of  re- 
laxation from  the  study  of  grammar  or  translation.  .  .  .  We  must 
ever  reject  colloquial  exercises  that  lead  to  nothing  —  that  are  mere 
talk.  Such  work  is  unworthy  of  the  school.  The  aimless,  rambling 
conversations  often  met  with  in  books  on  the  so-called  natural 
method  are  to  be  condemned.  (4  :  73-74) 

Students  mtist  be  given  ample  opportunity  to  talk.  —  The 
final  caution  is  the  following  : 

After  all,  one  of  the  great  secrets  of  doing  successful  work  in 
conversation  is  to  stimulate  the  pupils  to  do  the  greater  part  of  it. 
Let  the  teacher  talk  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  make  what  he 
wants  to  do  clear ;  then  let  him  see  that  the  class  does  more  talking 
than  he  does.  (4  :  74) 

In  order  that  the  necessary  opportunities  for  such  responses 
on  the  part  of  students  may  be  provided,  it  is  important  that 
the  beginning  language  classes  should  be  small.  This  is  being 


140 

well  provided  for  in  some  good  large  high  schools  by  limiting 
these  classes  to  fifteen  or  twenty  pupils.  In  the  smaller  high 
schools  this  matter  would  probably  adjust  itself. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  forming  associations This 

will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  type  of  learning  that  in- 
volves primarily  the  associating  of  symbols  and  meanings.  The 
acquiring  of  a  foreign  vocabulary  has  been  treated  at  consider- 
able length  as  an  example  of  this  type,  because  of  the  large 
practical  importance  of  the  issues  involved.  Other  examples 
of  the  general  process  of  association  as  carried  on  in  school 
may  be  found  in  Thorndike's  "  Principles  of  Teaching," 
pp.  112-123. 

The  two  types  of  learning  which  we  have  considered  so  far 
are  (i)  acquiring  motor  control  and  (2)  associating  symbols 
and  meanings.  In  each  case  we  have  been  concerned  with  the 
best  methods  of  starting  correct  associations.  There  remains 
the  problem  of  determining  the  best  methods  of  making  these 
correct  associations  permanent.  This  problem  will  be  discussed 
in  the  next  chapter,  under  the  title  of  Practice  or  Drill. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General  discussions  of  association.  —  i.  COLVIN,  S.S.  The  Learning 
Process.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1911.)  Pp.  128-158. 

2.  JAMES,  WILLIAM.    Principles  of  Psychology.   (Henry  Holt  and 
Company,  1890.)    Vol.  I,  chaps,  iv  and  xiv.    Also,  Talks  to  Teachers. 
(Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1 899.)   Chap.  ix. 

3.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.   (A.  G.  Seiler,  1905.) 
Chap,  viii,  pp.  1 1  o-i  23.   Numerous  exercises  furnish  profitable  points  for 
discussion  of  various  phases  of  high-school  teaching  to  which  the  principles 
of  association  apply. 

Direct  methods  of  language  instruction.  —  4.  BAGSTER-COLLINS. 
The  Teaching  of  German  in  Secondary  Schools.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1904.)  An  excellent  manual  of  method.  See  especially  chap,  iv, 
pp.  70-104. 

5.  CLARAHAN,  M.  M.  An  Experimental  Study  of  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing German.  (University  of  Missouri  Bulletin,  Educational  Series, 


ASSOCIATING  SYMBOLS  AND  MEANINGS      141 

Vol.  I,  No.  6.)   A  comparison  of  the  grammatical  method  with  a  direct 
reading  method. 

6.  HANDSCHIN,  C.  H.   A  Historical  Sketch   of  the   Gouin-Series 
System  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages  and  of  its  Use  in  the  United 
States.    (School  Review,  March,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  170-175.)   A  very 
suggestive  and  practical  article. 

7.  HANDSCHIN,  C.  H.   The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  the 
United  States.    Bulletin  No.  3,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
1913,  pp.  94-101.    Contains  bibliography  of  nearly  all  American  publi- 
cations on  the  teaching  of  modern  languages.    May  be  secured  from 
Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington.    Very  valuable. 

8.  HENMON,  V.  A.  C.   The  Relation  between  Mode  of  Presentation 
and  Retention.  Psychological  Re-view,  March,  191 2.  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  79-96. 
Reviews  results  of  psychological  experiments. 

9.  TALBOT,  W.    Teaching  English  to  Aliens.    Bulletin  No.  39, 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1917.    Contains  bibliographies  of 
textbooks  etc. 

Additional  references.  —  For  important  additions  to  this  bibliography, 
see  Exercises  for  "  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  E  69-E  70. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  VII,  with  several  addi- 
tional examples  of  direct  methods  of  teaching  foreign  languages,  see 
Exercises  for  "  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  E63-E69. 

For  the  assignment  of  a  paper  based  on  an  examination  of  periodi- 
cals dealing  with  the  teaching  of  special  subjects,  see  pp.  E7I-E72  of 
the  Exercises. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PRACTICE  OR  DRILL 

AUTOMATIZING  MOTOR  AND  MENTAL  ASSOCIATIONS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  After  associations  have  been 
correctly  started,  they  should  be  made  automatic  by  effective  econom- 
ical practice. 

2.  Feelings  of  satisfaction  or  success  and  attitudes  of  zeal  and 
concentration  of  attention  are  essential  or  especially  helpful  in  this 
process. 

3.  In  memorizing,  the  method  of  correct  recall  is  helpful  because 
it  involves  concentration  of  attention. 

4.  Experiments  upon  memorizing  by  "  wholes  "  or  by  "  parts  " 
have  failed  to  show  conclusively  which  is  better.     Sometimes  one 
and  sometimes  the  other  appears  better. 

5.  Time  should  not  be  wasted  on  accessory  processes,  such  as 
thumbing  dictionaries  and  copying  problems,  but  should  be  concen- 
trated on  the  real  processes  which  are  to  be  automatized. 

6.  It  is  probably  more  economical  and  effective  to  distribute 
periods  of  practice  and  repetitions  in  memorizing  than  it  is  to  make 
them  relatively  continuous. 

Automatizing  should  follow  correct  start.  —  The  two  pre- 
ceding chapters  discussed  methods  of  learning  to  make  cor- 
rect connections,  or  associations,  in  acquiring  motor  skill  and 
associating  symbols  and  meanings.  In  each  of  these  cases  it 
is  important  to  make  a  correct  start.  Thus,  in  learning  to  toss 
balls  it  is  desirable  to  introduce  as  early  as  possible  the  right- 
to-left  circular  motion,  and  in  learning  a  foreign  language  it 
is  important  to  establish  as  directly  as  possible  the  connec- 
tion between  the  foreign  symbols  and  their  meanings.  In  the 
present  chapter  we  shall  consider  the  problem  of  providing 

142 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  143 

sufficient  practice  or  drill  to  make  connections,  or  associations, 
automatic,  but  it  is  important  always  to  keep  in  mind  the 
necessity  of  getting  started  right  before  this  process  of  autom- 
atizing is  emphasized. 

Only  correct  practice  makes  perfect.  —  In  discussing  the 
use  of  the  method  of  trial  and  accidental  success  by  animals 
and  children,  Kirkpatrick  calls  attention  to  the  importance  of 
correct  practice  in  the  following  words  : 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  most  economical  mode  of 
reaching  favorable  results  is  necessarily  acquired  before  the  reaction 
becomes  established  as  a  habit.  If  a  series  of  movements  has  favor- 
able results  more  quickly  than  any  other  series  of  movements  that 
has  been  tried,  it  may  become  established  as  a  habit,  although  it  is 
far  from  the  shortest  and  most  economical  mode  of  securing  the 
result.  It  is  not  true,  therefore,  that  practice  necessarily  makes 
perfect.  Practice  may  just  as  readily  establish  an  imperfect  and 
uneconomical  mode  of  reaching  an  end.  This  is  an  important  prin- 
ciple to  be  recognized  by  teachers,  who  should  be  satisfied  so  long 
as  a  pupil  is  changing  for  the  better  in  anything  that  he  is  doing, 
but  should  take  care  that  he  does  not  form  a  fixed  habit  before  a 
reasonable  degree  of  perfection  has  been  attained.  (5  :  117) 

Similarly,  in  his  discussion  of  skill  in  typewriting,  Book  says : 

Great  effort  wrongly  or  carelessly  applied  is  even  more  detrimental 
to  progress  than  a  simple  lapse  in  attention  or  effort.  .  .  .  The 
tendency  to  slight  the  associations  in  the  last  stage  of  their  develop- 
ment and  to  push  ahead  too  fast  can,  of  course,  best  be  overcome, 
in  typewriting,  by  not  always  practicing  at  maximum  speed,  for  the 
effort  for  speed  usually  means  that  attention  deserts  the  details  of 
the  work.  To  perfect  carefully  the  elemental  associations  it  will 
therefore  be  found  better,  practically,  to  practice  most  of  the  time 
for  accuracy  alone  and  only  a  small  part  of  the  time  for  speed  —  a 
custom  generally  followed  by  the  best  typewriting  schools.  (12  :  179) 

Examples  of  automatizing  associations.  —  Having  made 
sure  that  the  correct  connections  are  started,  the  next  prob- 
lem is  to  provide  the  best  conditions  for  effective  and 


144  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

economical  automatizing  of  them.  For  example,  if  a  student  in 
high  school  is  learning  to  write  German  script,  after  making 
sure  that  he  knows  the  correct  forms  of  the  letters  and  can 
make  them  correctly  when  concentrating  his  attention  upon 
them,  it  becomes  necessary  to  provide  sufficient  practice  so 
that  he  will  be  able  to  write  them  rapidly  without  much  atten- 
tion to  them.  In  other  words,  the  process  of  writing  should 
be  made  so  automatic  that  his  attention  may  be  concentrated 
upon  the  thought  to  be  expressed,  while  his  writing  move- 
ments are  executed  automatically. 

Similarly,  in  learning  to  read  German  the  correct  direct 
connections  between  symbols  and  meanings  should  be  made 
so  automatic  that  the  reader  does  not  have  to  stop  and 
think  in  order  to  discover  the  meaning.  Other  examples 
occur  in  connection  with  memorizing.  Thus,  in  a  literature 
class,  if  a  poem  has  been  read  and  enjoyed,  it  may  be  de- 
sirable to  fix  it  permanently  in  the  pupils'  minds  for  future 
use  and  enjoyment ;  and  in  physics  and  trigonometry,  after 
the  fundamental  formulae  have  been  derived  and  are  under- 
stood, it  is  often  desirable  to  memorize  them  so  that  they  may 
be  recalled  automatically  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  use  them. 

All  of  these  examples  are  simple  illustrations  of  the  for- 
mulae concerning  habit  formation  which  we  paraphrased  from 
James  on  page  3 1  in  our  discussion  of  economy  in  manage- 
ment, namely,  make  habitual  as  early  as  possible  as  many  use- 
ful acts  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  attention  may  be  free 
to  solve  new  problems  as  they  present  themselves.  The 
pedagogical  problem  is  to  discover  the  most  effective  and 
economical  forms  of  practice  to  be  used  in  making  acts  or 
responses  habitual  or  automatic. 

Examples  of  experimental  investigations.  Learning  teleg- 
raphy.—  Considerable  experimental  work  has  been  done  by 
psychologists  in  studying  the  progress  made  by  individuals 
during  periods  of  practice.  Historically  the  most  interesting 
and  best  known  of  the  studies  made  in  America  is  one  by 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL 


145 


Bryan  and  Harter  on  "  Learning  the  Telegraphic  Language," 
published  in  the  Psychological  Review  in  1897  (Vol.  IV, 


120 
110 
100 

90 
80 
70 

60 
• 

3       50 
I       40 

w       30 

A 

£       20 
I       10 


4  8  12 

"Weeks  of  practice 


20 


24 


28 


36 


150- 
140 
130 
120 
110 
100 
90 
80 
70 

|  60 
.3  50 
3  40 
S,  30 
£  20 

|  » 


Sending 


Slowest  Main  Line  Rate 


4  8  12 

Weeks  of  practice 


1C 


20 


28 


32 


40 


EFFECTS  OF  NINE  MONTHS  OF  PRACTICE  IN  LEARNING  TELEGRAPHY. 
TWO  SUBJECTS 

Note  the  plateau  in  the  receiving  curve  of  each  subject.   After  Bryan  and  Harter, 
from  Thorndike's  "  Educational  Psychology  " 

pp.  27-53)  and  1899  (Vol.  VI,  pp.  345-375).  This  study 
was  based  on  testimony  obtained  from  many  telegraphers, 
including  experts  as  well  as  beginners,  and  upon  carefully 


146  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

measured  tests  of  the  progress  made  by  students  who  were 
learning  telegraphy.  The  improvement  made  by  two  of  these 
students  is  represented  in  the  curves  shown  in  the  illustration 
on  page  145.  A  rise  in  the  curves  represents  increase  in  speed 
for  sending  or  receiving  telegraphic  messages,  and  move- 
ment from  left  to  right  represents  increase  in  the  number 
of  weeks  of  practice. 

In  the  curves  which  represent  the  ability  to  receive  mes- 
sages it  appears  that  the  learner  made  a  rapid  improvement 
for  about  fourteen  weeks,  then  improved  at  a  slower  rate  for 
about  ten  weeks,  then  improved  more  rapidly  again.  The 
periods  of  little  improvement  are  known  as  "  plateaus." 
Further  reference  to  the  results  of  this  investigation  will  be 
made  later  in  the  chapter. 

Acquiring  skill  in  typewriting.  —  One  of  the  most  elabo- 
rate of  the  American  studies  of  practice  was  made  by  W.  F. 
Book  on  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  typewriting.  This  was  pub- 
lished in  1908  under  the  title  "  The  Psychology  of  Skill"  (12). 
It  describes  most  minutely  the  progress  made  by  several 
subjects  in  learning  typewriting  during  a  period  of  several 
months.  The  study  is  based  on  exact  mechanical  records  of 
the  amount  written  (which  is  measured  to  the  minute)  and 
upon  other  observations  recorded  by  the  subjects  and  the 
experimenter.  The  progress  of  the  learners  is  shown  by 
curves  similar  to  those  described  for  the  Bryan  and  Harter 
investigation.  In  describing  the  curves,  Book  makes  the 
following  summary  statement : 

(i)  The  curves  belong  to  the  usual  type,  that  is,  they  rise  rapidly 
at  first  [indicating  rapid  improvement]  and  then  more  and  more 
slowly  as  an  expert  skill  is  approached.  (2)  There  are  as  usual 
marked  fluctuations  in  efficiency  from  minute  to  minute  and  day 
to  day.  ...  (3)  All  of  the  regular  learning  curves  show  a  number 
of  short,  irregular  periods  of  arrest  —  "  breathing  places,"  in  their 
upward  movement,  [indicating  little  or  no  increase  in  efficiency 
and]  lasting,  in  our  experiment,  from  five  to  eight  days.  (4)  Two  of 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  147 

the  regular  learning  curves  and  all  curves  for  the  practice-sentence 
writing,  show  one  or  more  longer  periods  of  arrest — actual  plateaus 
where  no  improvement  is  made  for  a  period  of  from  thirty-two  to 
forty-eight  days.  (12  :  167) 

Neither  of  these  investigations  measures  directly  the  rela- 
tive efficiency  of  various  methods  of  instruction  in  modify- 
ing the  progress  made  by  students,  but  the  investigator  in 
each  case  draws  certain  pedagogical  conclusions  which  will  be 
referred  to  later  in  the  chapter. 

Determining  most  economical  methods  of  memorizing.  — 
Experiments  upon  memorizing  furnish  another  possible  source 
for  evidence  concerning  the  most  effective  and  economical 
methods  to  be  used  in  connection  with  certain  forms  of  prac- 
tice and  drill.  In  this  field  the  work  of  a  German  investigator 
named  Ebbinghaus  has  become  classic.  His  monograph  on 
memory  was  published  in  1885  and  has  recently  been  repub- 
lished  in  English  (15).  Ebbinghaus  experimented  with  a 
new  type  of  materials,  namely,  nonsense  syllables  (gub,  HI, 
los,  max,  fas,  etc.),  and  determined  a  great  many  facts  con- 
cerning the  phenomena  of  memorizing.  His  work  has  been 
followed  by  a  large  number  of  other  investigators,  whose  results 
are  summarized  and  discussed  at  length  by  E.  Meumann  in  his 
"Psychology  of  Learning"  (1913),  pp.  139-364,  and  E.  L. 
Thorndike  in  his  "Educational  Psychology,"  Vol.  II  (1913). 

Aspects  of  economical  learning  to  be  discussed.  —  The 
factors  which  determine  the  most  effective  and  economical 
methods  of  automatizing  associations  will  be  discussed  under 
the  following  heads  :  (i)  Influence  of  feelings  of  satisfaction 
and  dissatisfaction.  (2)  Part  played  by  zeal  and  concentration  of 
attention.  (3)  Use  of  correct  recall  in  memorizing.  (4)  Memo- 
rizing by  wholes.  (5)  Avoiding  waste  of  time  on  accessories. 
(6)  Most  favorable  distribution  of  periods  of  practice. 

1.  Influence  of  feelings  of  satisfaction  and  dissatisfaction 
is  important.  —  The  first  of  the  factors  that  contribute  to 
economy  and  effectiveness  of  practice  which  we  shall  consider, 


148  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

is  the  possibility  of  connecting  feelings  of  satisfaction  with 
successful  practice  and  feelings  of  dissatisfaction  with  unsuc- 
cessful efforts.  In  general,  responses  or  reactions  which  bring 
satisfaction  or  seem  to  be  successful  tend  to  be  repeated,  while 
other  responses  are  gradually  eliminated.  As  a  rule,  the  greater 
the  feeling  of  annoyance  connected  with  an  unsuccessful  act, 
the  less  likely  it  is  to  be  repeated.  Hence  Kirkpatrick  says  : 

It  should  be  noted  that  habits  are  not  formed  merely  because 
of  performing  and  repeating  an  act  in  a  certain  way.  Whether  the 
tendency  to  repeat  the  act  shall  be  greater  or  less  is  determined  by 
the  results  of  the  act.  If  the  results  are  favorable,  the  tendency  to 
repeat  the  act  is  increased ;  but  if  the  results  are  unfavorable,  the 
act  is  either  performed  with  less  vigor  or  is  replaced  by  some  other 
act.  When  a  cat  jumps  on  a  table  and  gets  some  food,  the  tendency 
to  repeat  that  act  is  increased  because  of  the  favorable  result ;  but 
if  she  performs  the  same  movement  of  jumping  on  the  table  and 
gets  a  blow  on  the  head,  the  tendency  to  jump  on  the  table  is 
decreased.  (5:  113) 

Pleasant  feelings  facilitate  progress  in  typewriting.  — 
Book,  who  made  very  elaborate  records  of  his  subjects'  feel- 
ings and  correlated  these  with  the  records  of  their  efficiency 
in  typewriting,  makes  the  following  statement  in  discussing 
"  the  retroactive  effects  of  pleasant  and  unpleasant  feelings 
upon  the  learner's  ability  to  do  and  improve." 

Pleasant  feelings  had  undeniably,  in  our  experiments,  a  stimu- 
lating and  helpful  effect  upon  every  part  of  the  work ;  unpleasant 
feelings,  a  depressing,  retarding  effect. .  . .  Success  brings  pleasure, 
and  the  pleasure  spurs  the  learner  on  to  greater  effort  and  more 
successful  work.  An  unpleasant  feeling  tends  to  interrupt  the 
natural,  easy,  and  correct  movement  of  attention  by  taking  forcible 
possession  of  consciousness  and  dominating  it.  Instead  of  con- 
sciousness being  focused  on  the  details  of  the  work,  it  is  filled 
with  unpleasant  feelings,  which  not  only  take  attention  off  the 
details  of  the  work  but  create  a  "  set "  of  mind  unfavorable  for 
the  work.  (12  :  152) 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  149 

2.  Zeal  and  concentration  of  attention  make  practice  effec- 
tive. —  Closely  related  to  the  influence  of  feelings  of  satis- 
faction and  dissatisfaction  discussed  above  is  the  influence 
of  zeal  and  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  efficiency  of 
practice  or  drill.  Book's  experiments  upon  typewriting  fur- 
nish us  with  the  best  evidence  on  this  point.  As  noted  in 
the  brief  quotation  given  above  on  page  146,  the  curves  of 
learning  for  his  subjects  showed  two  types  of  periods  during 
which  there  was  little  or  no  advance  in  efficiency.  There 
were  the  short  "  breathing  places  "  of  a  few  days  in  length 
and  the  long  plateaus  varying  from  thirty-two  to  forty-eight 
days.  Book  explains  the  appearance  of  these  periods  of  ar- 
rest largely  on  the  basis  of  lack  of  attention  and  interest. 
His  evidence  for  this  position  is  scattered  throughout  his 
discussion ;  hence  it  is  difficult  to  quote  it.  The  following 
paragraph  is  a  typical  generalization. 

At  the  critical  stages  [plateaus]  where  a  natural  and  marked  de- 
crease in  spontaneous  attention  and  effort  occurred,  no  improve- 
ment was  made.  The  learner  was  caught  by  the  law  of  habit  and 
was  content  to  use  old  methods  of  writing  when  he  should  have 
been  forging  ahead  inventing  new  and  better  ones.  (12  :  130) 

Explanation  of  lapses  in  attention  at  some  stages  in 
learning.  —  As  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that,  in  his  ex- 
periments, periods  of  no  improvement  were  periods  of  little 
attention  to  the  work,  Book  offers  the  following  statement: 

In  the  early  stages  of  learning,  where  many  elementary  associ- 
ations were  in  their  first  stages  of  development,  and  where,  conse- 
quently, many  short  cuts  in  method  were  possible  and  easy  to  make, 
no  lapses  in  attention  and  effort  occurred.  The  associations  were 
in  their  first  stages  of  development,  where  improvement  was  rapid 
and  easy.  .  .  .  The  strong  incentives  required  for  keeping  atten- 
tion focused  on  the  work  and  forging  ahead  were  furnished  by 
the  rapid  progress  and  success. 

With  the  continuation  of  practice  and  gain  in  skill  all  this  is 
changed.  The  elementary  habits  get  further  along  in  the  course  of 


150  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

their  development,  and,  as  attention  naturally  tends  to  drift  away 
from  every  association  or  detail  of  the  work  as  it  becomes  automatic, 
these  associations  soon  lose  their  drawing  power  for  it.  ...  This 
fact,  then,  that  attention  tends  naturally  to  drift  away  from  every 
activity  or  special  association  as  it  becomes  automatic,  and  drifts 
away  from  the  work  as  a  whole  as  progress  becomes  slow,  is  re- 
sponsible for  these  longer  lapses  in  spontaneous  attention  and 
effort.  .  .  .  The  learner  at  these  critical  stages  has  need  for  in- 
centives that  make  their  appeal  to  spontaneous  attention  or  natural 
interest.  (12:  145-146) 

Would  steady,  intense  interest  avoid  plateaus  in  learning? 
— Plateaus,  or  places  of  no  improvement,  appear  so  commonly 
in  curves  of  learning  that  it  has  sometimes  been  assumed 
that  they^  constitute  a  necessary  stage  in  acquiring  skill  in 
any  complex  performance.  Book  takes  exception  to  this 
point  of  view,  as  far  as  learning  typewriting  is  concerned, 
and  maintains  that  if  the  necessary  zeal  and  concentration 
of  attention  could  prevail  throughout  the  learning,  the  criti- 
cal stages  would  be  passed  quickly  without  the  development 
of  plateaus.  As  evidence  for  this  view  he  cites  the 

fact  that  some  of  [his]  learners  did  of  themselves  successfully  over- 
come the  difficulties  encountered  at  some  of  the  critical  stages  in  learn- 
ing to  use  the  typewriter,  and  the  further  well-known  fact  that  in 
learning  such  complicated  things  as  playing  the  piano  or  learning 
a  foreign  language  many  learners  successfully  conquer  the  diffi- 
culties presented  by  every  critical  stage  and  thus  eliminate  the 
plateaus.  (12:  160-161) 

Interest  and  effective  drill  not  opposites.  —  These  extended 
quotations  have  been  made  from  Book's  study  because  it 
furnishes  one  of  the  best  measured  investigations  of  the 
importance  of  interest  and  zeal  in  learning.  Ever  since 
the  time  of  Locke  (1632-1704)  and  Rousseau  (1712-1778) 
there  have  been  strong  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  in- 
terest as  a  factor  in  making  learning  more  economical  and 
effective.  Although  these  arguments  have  been  accepted  by 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  151 

many  educators,  there  are  still  many  who  think  that  school 
work  should  be  characterized  by  "arbitrary  memorization, 
drill,  and  habituation  with  little  appeal  to  interest  or  under- 
standing." 

The  alignment  of  interest  and  zeal  among  the  chief  aids 
or  factors  in  effective  drill  stands  in  very  sharp  contrast  with 
the  two  extreme  positions  concerning  these  aspects  of  school 
work.  At  one  extreme  we  find  the  ultraconservative  educators, 
who  insist  on  drill  as  almost  the  beginning  and  end  of  in- 
struction, but  rule  out  interest.  At  the  opposite  extreme  we 
find  the  ultraidealists,  or  radicals,  who  have  no  use  for  drill, 
but  exalt  interest.  Neither  theory  is  satisfactory  in  school 
practice,  and  Book's  study  shows  why.  Drill  without  interest 
is  uneconomical ;  hence  our  old-time  schools  succeeded  in 
accomplishing  little  with  their  methods  of  dreary  grinding. 
On  the  other  hand,  drill  is  necessary  —  indeed,  very  many 
periods  of  drill  —  in  order  to  make  automatic  some  of  the 
complicated  forms  of  human  behavior  which  are  necessary 
for  efficiency ;  but  it  need  not  and  should  not  be  divorced 
from  interest. 

Skilled  teacher  should  provide  interest  at  critical  stages.  — 
The  pedagogical  conclusions  from  this  phase  of  his  study  are 
summarized  by  Book  as  follows  : 

The  critical  stages  are,  in  all  probability,  a  stern  reality  in  all 
forms  of  complex  learning,  but  our  facts  seem  to  warrant  the 
general  statement  that  a  skilled  and  sympathetic  teacher — one  who 
knows  what  habits  are  to  be  formed  in  the  learning  he  is  to  direct, 
and  who  therefore  knows  where  the  critical  stages  appear — might 
so  guide  his  learners  that  their  attention  would  be  kept  properly 
applied  to  the  details  of  the  work.  .  .  .  He  might  also  provide 
such  emotional  helps  and  artificial  stimuli,  by  arousing  an  interest 
in  the  higher  aspects  of  the  subject,  as  would  fully  compensate  for 
the  natural  lapses  in  interest  and  effort  at  the  critical  stages.  If 
the  learner's  interest  and  effort  can  be  kept  from  lagging  and  kept 
properly  directed,  there  will  be  no  plateaus.  (12  :  161) 


152  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Intense  effort  based  on  spontaneous  interest  is  helpful.  — 
Up  to  this  point  our  discussion  of  Book's  results  has  been 
concerned  largely  with  the  negative  aspects,  namely,  that 
improvement  was  not  made -during  periods  of  lack  of  atten- 
tion or  interest.  On  the  positive  side  he  found  that  rapid 
improvement  was  the  result  of  intense  effort.  This  effort, 
however,  was  not  of  the  kind  associated  with  a  "  dull  heave 
of  the  will,"  but  was  the  kind  of  effort  that  accompanies  in- 
tense interest.  In  fact,  Book  gives  specific  evidence  to  show 
that  a  general  vague  effort  without  spontaneous  interest  in 
the  work  itself,  and  without  concentration  of  attention  upon 
the  processes  to  be  mastered,  was  uneconomical,  inasmuch 
as  it  did  not  bring  about  improvement. 

The  importance  of  properly  inspired  and  directed  effort  in 
bringing  about  improvement  through  practice  was  also  em- 
phasized by  Bryan  and  Harter  in  their  study  of  telegraphy. 
They  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  men  whose  ability  to 
receive  telegraphic  messages  had  been  at  a  dead  level  for 
years  often  rose  to  a  higher  level  when  forced  to  do  so  in 
order  to  secure  or  hold  a  higher  position  requiring  greater 
speed.  These  men  had  the  capacity  for  the  higher  achieve- 
ment, and  the  stimulus  of  position  aroused  in  them  an 
interest  which  led  to  the  effort  and  concentration  of  atten- 
tion that  brought  about  the  improvement. 

Examples  of  opportunities  for  zeal  and  concentration  in 
class  drills.  —  The  conclusions  of  Book  relative  to  the  impor- 
tance of  attention  and  interest  in  connection  with  practice 
were  derived  from  a  study  of  a  very  complex  system  of 
motor  and  mental  associations.  It  is  fair  to  assume,  however, 
that  the  same  general  principles  would  apply  in  the  purpo- 
sive memorizing  or  automatizing  of  more  purely  mental  as- 
sociations, such  as  learning  vocabularies  or  poems  or  lists 
of  formulae.  These  principles  of  attention  are  applied  in  the 
elementary  grades  by  providing  that  the  drills  on  words  in 
reading,  and  the  spelling  and  arithmetic  drills,  should  proceed 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  153 

with  snap,  zest,  and  interest.  It  is  equally  important  that  the 
same  spirit  should  prevail  in  high-school  class  work  in  drills 
on  vocabularies,  in  rapid  oral  work  in  algebra,  and  possibly 
in  drills  on  fundamental  facts  to  be  learned  in  history  and 
other  content  subjects. 

As  evidence  of  the  superior  effectiveness  of  practice  which 
is  associated  with  interest  and  zeal  for  improvement  in  one 
of  the  formal  school  processes,  namely,  the  addition  of  num- 
bers, Thorndike  compared  the  amounts  of  improvement  made 
by  two  groups  of  subjects.  The  first  group  had  been  adding 
under  varying  conditions,  to  determine  the  influence  of  hunger 
or  rest  or  drugs  or  the  length  of  the  practice  periods  ;  the 
second  group  had  been  carrying  on  practice  experiments  in 
adding,  to  see  how  much  they  could  improve  their  ability  in  add- 
ing. The  second  group,  who  were  especially  interested  in 
improving,  actually  did  make  improvements  that  were  two  or 
three  times  as  great  as  the  gross  gains  made  by  the  first  group. 
In  summarizing  his  discussion  of  the  data,  Thorndike  says : 

On  the  whole,  though  the  interpretation  of  all  of  these  facts  is 
somewhat  uncertain,  I  cannot  but  believe  that  they  testify  to  the 
very  great  potency  of  interest,  whereby  the  added  zeal  and  satis- 
faction at  success  which  come  from  adding  for  improvement  pri- 
marily, rather  than  simply  to  provide  an  investigator  with  material  on 
hunger  or  pause-length,  increase  the  rate  of  gain  notably.  (9:  225) 

3.  Correct  recall  in  memorizing  involves  concentration  of 
attention  and  saves  time  on  parts  learned.  —  In  memorizing, 
one  device  to  secure  concentration  of  attention  during  the 
process  is  the  use  of  the  method  of  correct  recall.  This 
means  that  the  student,  instead  of  keeping  his  eyes  fixed  on 
the  page  during  each  repetition,  should  begin  to  look  off  as 
soon  as  it  is  possible  to  recall  correctly  what  he  has  read  or 
what  is  to  come.  At  first  this  may  be  possible  with  mere 
snatches  of  the  context,  but  gradually  the  parts  that  can  be 
correctly  recalled  will  become  longer  and  longer,  so  that 


154  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

eventually  only  occasional  glances  at  the  page  will  be  neces- 
sary to  get  one's  bearings  or  to  get  some  of  the  more  diffi- 
cult parts.  At  all  stages,  however,  the  student  should  be 
careful  to  avoid  incorrect  recall  as  far  as  possible,  for  such 
recall  tends  to  establish  incorrect  associations  which  will  in- 
terfere with  the  correct  ones  that  the  student  is  trying  to 
make  automatic. 

The  active  character  of  the  process  of  recall  tends  to  hold 
the  attention  much  better  than  it  is  held  by  mere  repetition 
in  the  form  of  rereading.  The  latter  process  tends  to  become 
a  mere  passive,  mechanical  operation,  with  the  result  that 
attention  wanders  to  other  matters. 

Another  advantage  of  the  method  of  recall  is  that  it  in- 
forms the  student  concerning  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  in  the  learning;  that  is,  it  lets  him  know  what  parts 
are  learned  for  the  time  being  and  what  parts  are  not.  If  the 
parts  that  are  not  learned  present  certain  special  difficulties, 
they  may  then  be  attentively  examined  to  discover  the  nature 
of  the  difficulties  or  to  clear  up  some  of  the  connections  in 
the  context. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  experimental  evidence  on  the  value 
of  the  method  of  recall,  see  Ladd  and  Woodworth  (6)  and 
Abbott  (11). 

4.  Is  memorizing  by  wholes  better  than  by  parts  ?  —  Con- 
siderable experimental  work  has  been  done  by  psychologists 
to  determine  which  is  better,  to  break  up  material  that  is  to 
be  memorized  into  small  parts,  each  of  which  is  to  be 
memorized  separately,  or  to  repeat  the  whole  selection  clear 
through  every  time.  In  most  cases,  evidence  indicates  that 
the  latter,  or  "  whole,"  method  is  more  economical  than  the 
former,  or  "  part,"  method.  Sometimes  the  part  method 
seems  better.  Nearly  all  the  experimentation  has  been  upon 
verbatim,  or  rote,  memorizing.  Hence  it  is  to  be  assumed  that 
the  correct  connections,  or  associations,  have  been  started  be- 
fore the  drill  or  memorizing  or  automatizing  begins.  Thus, 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  155 

in  memorizing  a  poem  or  a  speech  care  should  be  taken  to 
make  sure  that  the  ideas  are  clear  before  the  process  of  ver- 
batim memorizing  begins.  Moreover,  if  special  difficulties 
occur  with  certain  sections,  as  suggested  above  in  the  discus- 
sion of  recall,  there  is  ample  justification  for  stopping  to  give 
these  especial  attention  ;  but  in  general  the  repetitions  should 
be  of  whole  thought  units  up  to  a  certain  limit,  which  has  not 
been  definitely  determined.  A  summary  of  the  investigations 
by  German  experimenters  is  given  by  Meumann.  (7 : 233-255) 
Early  American  investigation  of  memorising  poetry.  — 
One  of  the  best-known  American  investigations  of  the  rela- 
tive efficiency  of  the  whole  and  part  methods  is  one  by 
W.  H.  Pyle  and  J.  C.  Snyder  which  is  reported  in  the 
Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  (1911).  The  summary 
of  the  article  reads  as  follows  : 

The  question  as  to  whether  it  is  more  economical,  in  committing 
to  memory,  to  learn  connected  sense  material  by  parts  or  to  learn 
it  as  a  whole  is  here  extended  to  longer  selections  than  have  been 
considered  by  previous  investigators.  Experiments  occupying  some 
six  months,  though  mainly  restricted  to  a  single  observer,  show 
that  whether  five  lines  or  two  hundred  forty  lines  [approximately 
six  pages]  of  poetry  are  memorized,  learning  by  wholes  is,  without 
any  exception,  more  economical  than  learning  by  parts,  and  that 
the  relative  saving  is  much  greater  in  the  case  of  long  selections 
that  require  more  than  a  single  sitting  [to  memorize  them].  Cor- 
roborative results  were  obtained  from  tests  on  school  children. 
(20:  133-142) 

The  material  used  in  this  experiment  consisted  of  se- 
lections from  Longfellow's  translation  of  Dante's  "  Divine 
Comedy."  The  method  used  in  memorizing  was  to  read  the 
poetry  over  aloud  at  an  even,  natural  rate.  In  learning  units 
of  from  twenty  to  fifty  lines  in  length  there  was  a  saving  of 
1 1  per  cent  by  the  whole  method,  if  measured  either  by  the 
number  of  repetitions  or  by  the  time  required.  In  learning 
longer  units  there  was  a  saving  of  20  per  cent. 


156  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Is  whole  method  superior  with  children  ?  —  The  possi- 
bility of  taking  advantage  of  the  whole  method  with  children 
is  asserted  by  Meumann  in  the  following  words,  which  need, 
however,  further  interpretation. 

When  significant  material  is  learned,  the  whole  procedure  proves 
to  be  almost  as  advantageous  for  children  as  for  adults,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  data:  Employing  the  part  procedure, 
an  eight-year-old  boy  learned  a  verse  of  Goethe's  "  Erlkonig  "  in 
seventeen  repetitions ;  in  eleven  repetitions  when  he  employed  the 
whole  procedure.  He  learned  another  verse  of  the  same  poem 
in  fifteen  repetitions  when  it  was  divided  into  two  sections,  and 
immediately  afterwards  he  learned  the  next  verse  as  one  section  in 
ten  repetitions.  Approximately  this  same  state  of  affairs  was  found 
with  all  school  children.  Subsequent  relearning  was  easier  when 
the  stanzas  had  originally  been  learned  by  the  whole  procedure. 
This  is  true  also  for  larger  amounts  of  material  so  long  as  they 
do  not  fatigue  the  child.  (7  :  284-285) 

Experiments  on  motor  learning.  —  A  very  instructive 
investigation  of  the  part  and  whole  methods  in  learning 
to  trace  through  a  complicated  four-part  maze  is  reported 
by  L.  A.  Pechstein  in  the  Elementary  School  Journal  for 
June,  1917,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  734-740.  He  found  that  the 
most  economical  learning  occurred  when  the  total  complex 
maze  was  divided  into  four  connecting  areas,  each  of  which 
was  learned  as  a  unit,  with  special  devices  for  learning  the 
connections  between  the  four  units. 

No  time  wasted  on  useless  associations  by  whole  method.  — 
The  explanations  offered  for  the  experimentally  ascertained 
fact  that  memorizing  by  wholes  is  often  more  economical  than 
by  parts  are  these.  In  the  first  place,  in  the  case  of  connected 
material  learned  by  the  whole  method,  all  of  the  associa- 
tions are  formed  as  they  will  be  used,  whereas  by  the  part 
method  many  associations  are  formed  that  will  not  be  used 
and  that  will  interfere  with  certain  ones  that  will  be  used. 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL 


157 


This  abstract  statement  can  be  made  clear  by  the  following 
illustration.  Suppose  a  child  is  memorizing  two  stanzas  of 
a  poem,  for  example, 

STANZA  A 

1.  Mary  had  a  little  lamb, 

2.  His  fleece  was  white  as  snow, 

3.  And  everywhere  that  Mary  went 

4.  The  lamb  was  sure  to  go. 


STANZA  B 

1.  He  followed  her  to  school  one  day, 

2.  Which  was  against  the  rule ; 

3.  It  made  the  children  laugh  and  play 

4.  To  see  a  lamb  at  school. 

The  connections  made  by  the  whole  and  part  methods  may  be 
represented  by  the  following  diagrams  : 


Whole  method 
STANZA  A    i 


Part  method  (that  is, 
stanza  by  stanza} 


STANZA  B     i- 


158  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

In  the  whole  method  the  arrows  indicate  that  the  end  of 
each  line  becomes  associated  with  the  beginning  of  the  next, 
which  is  as  it  should  be.  In  the  part  method,  by  which  stanza 
A  is  repeated  by  itself  until  memorized,  the  last  arrow  indi- 
cates that  the  end  of  line  4  of  stanza  A  becomes  associated 
with  the  beginning  of  line  I  of  the  same  stanza.  This  is  an 
association  that  we  do  not  care  to  build  up.  Hence  time  is 
wasted  in  building  up  an  association  which  we  do  not  want, 
and  which,  later  on,  will  interfere  with  the  association  that  we 
do  want,  namely,  of  the  end  of  line  4  of  stanza  A  with  the 
beginning  of  line  I  of  stanza  B. 

Greater  concentration  of  attention  by  the  whole  method.  — 
Another  explanation  of  the  frequent  superiority  of  the  whole 
method  of  memorizing  over  the  part  method  is  that  the 
whole  method  may  secure  greater  concentration  of  attention. 
If  small  parts  are  repeated  until  memorized,  after  one  or  two 
repetitions  the  repeating  may  continue  mechanically,  with  rela- 
tively little  attention  to  what  is  being  repeated.  Such  repeti- 
tions without  concentration  of  attention  are  relatively  wasteful, 
as  we  noted  above.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  whole  is  repeated 
every  time,  when  the  learner  approaches  each  part  it  retains 
certain  aspects  of  novelty  or  unfamiliarity  which  are  helpful 
to  spontaneous  attention.  However,  if  the  learner  tends  to 
be  discouraged  by  long  units,  the  favorable  influence  of  in- 
terest is  lost,  and  shorter  thought  units  should  be  arranged 
with  which  he  can  feel  his  progress  in  learning  and  be  en- 
couraged thereby.  For  younger  children  and  slow-learning 
adults  the  units  need  to  be  shorter  than  for  more  mature  and 
skilled  learners. 

5.  Drill  on  real  process  ;  do  not  waste  time  on  accessories. 
Thumbing  dictionaries.  —  An  important  point  in  economy  in 
learning  is  to  waste  as  little  time  as  possible  on  activities  which 
are  not  an  essential  part  of  the  activity  that  is  being  practiced. 
The  most  striking  neglect  of  this  principle  is  found  in  study- 
ing a  foreign  language  largely  by  means  of  the  dictionary.  In 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  159 

learning  a  foreign  language  the  connections,  or  associations, 
that  we  desire  to  automatize  are  associations  of  foreign  symbols 
with  their  meanings,  and  vice  versa.  From  the  standpoint  of 
economy  in  learning,  the  more  quickly  the  association  can  be 
started  the  better ;  but  when  the  student  meets  new  words  in 
his  reading  and  has  to  look  up  their  meaning  in  a  dictionary, 
a  large  part  of  the  time  is  spent  before  the  association  which 
we  desire  to  build  up  is  even  started.  Moreover,  having  found 
the  English  equivalent,  he  notes  it  for  a  moment  and  starts 
to  search  for  the  next  word  to  be  looked  up.  Hence,  a  large 
part  of  his  time  is  spent  on  an  accessory  process,  namely, 
thumbing  the  dictionary,  while  the  real  process  of  concentrated 
repetition  of  the  association  is  slighted. 

Experiments  on  memorizing  vocabularies  demonstrate 
waste.  —  The  significance  of  this  waste  of  time  becomes 
apparent  when  we  consider  the  large  vocabulary  that  can  be 
learned  in  a  very  short  time  if  the  material  for  the  associations 
is  provided  outright  and  does  not  have  to  be  gathered  by  the 
student.  Thus,  Dearborn  experimented  upon  memorizing 
vocabularies  provided  for  students  in  the  form  of  parallel 
columns  of  French  words  and  English  equivalents.  In  pre- 
senting the  tabulated  results,  he  says  : 

Subject  i,  for  example,  learned  fifty  French  words  daily  for 
twenty-one  days.  ...  As  a  result  of  the  practice  over  one  thousand 
new  words  were  learned,  at  least  for  the  time  being,  in  less  than 
six  and  one-half  hours.  The  ordinary  vocabulary,  with  the  exception 
of  paradigms  and  declensions,  usually  learned  in  a  semester's  work 
in  university  classes  is,  I  am  told,  less  than  half  of  this.  (14  :  386. 
Cf.  9:  142-143) 

English  equivalents  and  notes  should  be  easily  accessible. 
—  If  the  translation  method  of  teaching  a  foreign  language 
is  to  be  used,  it  is  evident  from  such  investigations  that  de- 
vices should  be  adopted  to  eliminate  the  waste  of  time  in 
using  a  dictionary.    If  a  systematic  course  covering  at  least 


i6o  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

two  years  is  worked  out,  it  would  be  quite  practicable  to  devise 
a  series  of  textbooks  that  would  give  the  English  equivalent 
of  each  foreign  word  in  some  convenient,  accessible  form  the 
first  four  or  five  times  the  word  occurred.  In  some  books  this 
has  been  done  by  interlinear  translation.  If  there  is  objection 
to  this,  the  new  vocabulary  for  each  page  can  be  printed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page.  Certainly  the  explanatory  notes 
should  be  printed  there.  Think  of  the  hours  of  time  wasted 
by  millions  of  students  in  finding  the  notes  printed  in  the 
back  of  readers  and  editions  of  the  classics !  It  is  far  better 
that  a  few  editors  and  printers  should  spend  some  time 
arranging  material  for  economical  use  than  that  the  time 
of  students  should  be  wasted. 

Flash  cards  save  much  time  in  drilling.  —  Another  ex- 
ample of  the  possibility  of  avoiding  waste  of  time  on  accesso- 
ries is  the  use  of  "  flash  cards  "  for  various  forms  of  drill.  In 
the  elementary  school  this  practice  is  very  common  in  the 
work  in  arithmetic  and  reading.  Thousands  of  arithmetical 
combinations  are  arranged  on  cards  and  "  flashed  "  by  the 
teacher  before  the  class  one  at  a  time  and  very  rapidly.  When 
a  pupil  is  called  upon,  he  is  expected  to  give  the  answer  im- 
mediately. The  same  method  could  be  used  for  rapid  oral 
drill  on  many  of  the  processes  in  algebra.  It  is  being  used 
for  vocabulary  drills  in  Latin  in  several  places.  By  use  of 
such  a  device  practically  all  of  the  class  are  doing  alert,  rapid 
mathematical  or  linguistic  thinking  during  the  whole  period 
of  drill.  No  time  is  wasted  in  getting  the  associations  or 
problems  before  their  attention,  and  every  member  must  be 
alert  in  expectation  of  being  called  on.  Additional  stimulus 
to  attention  is  ^commonly  provided  by  introducing  the  game 
spirit  and  recording  the  time  taken  to  run  through  a  given 
set  of  cards.  Groups  of  pupils  at  certain  ages  become  in- 
tensely interested  in  improving  their  own  records  or  beating 
the  records  of  other  groups  and  succeed  in  accomplishing 
astonishing  results  in  a  short  time. 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL 


161 


6.  What  is  the  best  distribution  and  length  of  practice 
periods  ?  Writing  German  script.  —  In  order  to  get  some 
evidence  concerning  the  best  distribution  of  time  for  eco- 
nomical practice  or  drill,  Leuba  and  Hyde  carried  on  an  ex- 
periment with  some  twenty-six  subjects  who  were  learning  to 
write  German  script.  (17:  351-369.)  The  practice  periods 
were  twenty  minutes  long.  Six  subjects  practiced  two  periods 
a  day,  namely,  at  8. 40  A.M.  and  1.30  P.M.  Seven  practiced 
one  period  a  day,  at  1 .40  P.M.  Six  practiced  one  period  every 
other  day.  Seven  practiced  one  period  every  third  day. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  achievements  after 
an  equal  number  of  periods  of  practice  : 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  LETTERS  WRITTEN  IN  TWENTY  MINUTES 


TWICE-A-DAY 

ONCE-A-DAY 

EVERY-OTHER- 

EVERY-THIRD- 

SUBJECTS 

SUBJECTS 

DAY  SUBJECTS 

DAY  SUBJECTS 

After    5  practices 
After  10  practices 
After  1  5  practices 

625 
865 
1015 

825 

i«5 

1540 

780 

"75 

750 
985 

It  is  quite  evident  from  this  table  that  the  once-a-day  sub- 
jects achieved  much  more  after  a  given  number  of  periods  of 
practice  than  did  the  twice-a-day  subjects. 

Learning  to  use  new  alphabets.  —  Another  experiment  to 
determine  the  most  economical  amount  of  time  to  spend  each 
day  in  practice  was  described  by  Pyle  in  the  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology  (1913).  The  practice  material  consisted 
of  arbitrary  new  alphabets  of  twenty-six  characters  each.  Prac- 
tice with  a  given  alphabet  consisted  in  translating  ordinary 
printed  material  into  it.  This  is  known  by  psychologists  as 
a  substitution  test.  In  summing  up  the  results  from  several 
subjects  who  carried  on  such  practice  with  varying  amounts 
of  time  per  day,  Pyle  says  : 

On  the  whole  our  experiments  warrant  some  such  conclusion  as 
the  following :  In  habit  formation  [in  the  case  of  simple  substitution 


162  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

experiments]  an  adult  can  practice  profitably  for  something  like 
thirty  minutes  daily.  The  length  of  time  for  practice  doubtless 
varies  with  individuals  and  with  the  stage  of  fixation  of  the  habit. 
If  practice  is  extended  beyond  thirty  minutes,  there  may  be  some 
return  for  the  extra  time,  but  it  is  relatively  small.  It  is  quite  prob- 
able that  in  the  later  stages  of  habituation  the  length  of  practice 
period  could  be  shortened  and  the  interval  lengthened  with  practi- 
cally as  much  return.  A  second  practice  on  the  same  day  is  not 
quite  as  beneficial  as  the  first  practice.  After  a  few  practices,  further 
practice  on  the  same  day  is  useless.  (19  :  158.  Cf.,  however,  19  a) 

Distributed  repetitions  best  in  'memorizing.  —  In  the  inves- 
tigation of  memorizing  it  has  also  been  found  that  distributed 
repetitions  are  more  economical  than  continuous  repetitions. 
Thus,  Ebbinghaus  found  that  when  the  repetitions  of  series 
of  nonsense  syllables  were  distributed  over  three  days,  each 
series  required  thirty-eight  repetitions,  while  sixty-eight  repeti- 
tions were  necessary  for  a  series  when  they  were  all  performed 
at  a  single  sitting.  (7:  265.)  Another  German  investigator 
named  Jost 

devoted  thirty  repetitions  without  pause  to  the  learning  of  a  series 
of  syllables ;  in  another  case  he  employed  ten  repetitions  on  each 
of  three  successive  days.  In  both  cases  he  tested  accuracy  of 
retention  twenty-four  hours  after  the  repetitions  had  been  com- 
pleted. He  found  that  the  syllables  which  had  been  learned  with 
distributed  repetitions  were  retained  better  than  those  which  had 
been  learned  with  the  same  number  of  accumulated  repetitions. 
Jost  also  attempted  to  determine  how  far  the  distribution  of  repe- 
titions may  be  carried  without  giving  rise  to  a  deleterious  result. 
He  found  that  when  the  material  to  be  learned  is  of  large  mass, 
the  most  extensive  distribution  is  the  most  advantageous,  both  as 
to  rapidity  of  learning  and  permanence  of  retention.  (7  :  266) 

Lecture  notes  and  readings  should  be  reviewed  soon  after 
first  repetition;  later  at  increasing  intervals.  —  Lyon,  who 
has  specialized  upon  the  study  of  economy  in  memorizing, 
gives  the  following  practical  conclusion  : 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  163 

With  reference  to  the  problem  of  the  most  favorable  distribution 
of  single  readings  ...  I  would  say  that  the  most  general  state- 
ment that  can  be  made,  taking  all  materials  and  methods  of  pres- 
entation into  consideration,  is  that  the  most  economical  method  is 
to  distribute  the  readings  over  a  rather  lengthy  period,  the  inter- 
vals between  the  readings  being  in  arithmetical  proportion.  For 
example,  with  one  individual,  in  memorizing  a  poem  of  twenty  stanzas, 
the  highest  retentiveness  was  obtained  by  distributing  the  readings 
as  follows :  two  hours,  eight  hours,  one  day,  two  days,  four  days, 
eight  days,  sixteen  days,  thirty-two 'days,  etc.  The  practical  bearing 
of  the  results  obtained  on  education  in  general  is  that  when  asso- 
ciations have  once  been  formed,  they  should  be  recalled  before  an 
interval  so  long  has  elapsed  that  the  original  associations  have  lost 
their  color  and  cannot  be  recalled  in  the  same  shape,  time,  and 
order.  In  general  it  was  found  that  the  most  economical  method 
for  keeping  material  once  memorized  from  disappearing  was  to 
review  the  material  whenever  it  started  to  fade.  Here  also  the 
intervals  were  found' to  be,  roughly  speaking,  in  arithmetical  pro- 
portion. For  similar  reasons  the  student  is  advised  to  review  his 
lecture  notes  shortly  after  taking  them,  and,  if  possible,  to  review 
them  again  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  Then  the  lapse  of  a  week 
or  two  does  not  make  nearly  so  much  difference.  When  once  he 
has  forgotten  so  much  that  the  various  associations  originally  made 
have  vanished,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  material  is  irretrievably 
lost.  (18:  161) 

The  results  of  the  experiments  by  Leuba,  Pyle,  Ebbinghaus, 
Jost,  and  Lyon  upon  distributed  practice  versus  more  continu- 
ous practice  should  not  be  accepted  as  final  and  as  furnishing 
entirely  reliable  guides  for  school  programs  without  further 
critical  study  of  the  results  of  other  experimenters.  Such  a 
critical  comparison  is  furnished  by  Thorndike  in  his  "  Psy- 
chology of  Learning  "  (9  :  193-206),  but  the  results  are  often 
so  contradictory  that  the  following  tentative  statement  is  the 
only  general  conclusion  that  he  provides  : 

The  experimental  results  obtained  justify  in  a  rough  way  the 
avoidance  of  very  long  practice  periods  and  of  very  short  intervals. 


1 64  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

They  seem  to  show,  on  the  other  hand,  that  much  longer  practice 
periods  than  are  customary  in  the  common  schools  are  probably 
entirely  allowable,  and  that  much  shorter  intervals  are  allowable 
than  those  customary  between  the  first  learning  and  successive 
reviews  in  schools.  (9:  194) 

On  the  whole,  however,  so  very  few  of  the  infinite  number  of 
ways  in  which  any  given  total  time  can  be  distributed  have  been 
tested  for  even  substitution  tests  and  addition,  that  psychology 
has  little  yet  to  offer  in  advance  of  the  experience  of  sagacious 
workers.  (9  :  206) 

Empirical  discussion  of  practice  upon  the  piano.  —  There 
is  a  large  body  of  empirical  or  practical  discussion  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  effective  and  economical  practice.  To  a  certain  extent 
the  conclusions  reached  by  practical  teachers  are  in  harmony 
with  the  results  of  experimental  investigations.  As  an  exer- 
cise in  further  thinking  about  the  results  presented  up  to  this 
point  in  the  chapter,  students  may  examine  and  evaluate 
the  suggestions  for  practice  contained  in  the  following  quota- 
tion from  Josef  Hofmann's  book  entitled  "  Piano  Playing," 
from  which  other  excerpts  have  been  quoted  above  on  pages 
III-H2.  Under  the  head  of  General  Rules,  Hofmann 
writes  as  follows : 

Now,  as  to  Practice.  Let  me  suggest  that  you  never  practice 
more  than  an  hour,  or  at  the  most  two  hours,  at  a  stretch,  accord- 
ing to  your  condition  and  strength.  Then  go  out  and  take  a  walk 
and  think  no  more  of  music.  This  method  of  mental  unhitching, 
so  to  speak,  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  that  the  newly  acquired 
results  of  your  work  may,  unconsciously  to  yourself,  mature  in 
your  mind  and  get,  as  it  were,  into  your  flesh  and  blood.  (Com- 
pare Thorndike  9  :  300-331) 

After  every  half  hour  make  a  pause  until  you  feel  rested.  Five 
minutes  will  often  be  sufficient. 

A  valuable  little  hint  here,  if  you  will  allow  me :  Watch  well  that 
you  actually  hear  every  tone  you  mean  to  produce.  Every  missing 
tone  will  mean  a  blotch  upon  your  photographic  plate  in  the  brain. 
Each  note  must  be  not  mentally  but  physically  heard,  and  to  this 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  165 

imperative  requirement  your  speed  must  ever  subordinate  itself. 
It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  practice  loudly  in  order  to  foster  the 
permanence  of  impressions.  Rather  let  an  inward  tension  take  the 
place  of  external  force.  It  will  engage,  sympathetically,  your  hearing 
just  as  well. 

With  regard  to  finger  exercises .  Do  not  let  them  be  too  frequent 
or  too  long  —  at  the  most  a  half  hour  a  day.  A  half  hour  daily, 
kept  up  for  a  year,  is  enough  for  anyone  to  learn  to  play  one's 
exercises. 

A  rule  for  memory  exercises.  If  you  wish  to  strengthen  the  recep- 
tivity and  retentiveness  of  your  memory,  you  will  find  the  following 
plan  practical :  Start  with  a  short  piece.  Analyze  the  form  and 
manner  of  its  texture.  Play  the  piece  a  number  of  times  very 
exactly,  with  the  music  before  you.  Then  stop  playing  for  several 
hours  and  try  to  trace  the  course  of  ideas  mentally  in  the  piece. 
Try  to  hear  the  piece  inwardly.  If  you  have  retained  some  parts, 
refill  the  missing  places  by  repeated  reading  of  the  piece,  away 
from  the  piano.  When  next  you  go  to  the  piano  (after  several 
hours,  remember),  try  to  play  the  piece.  Should  you  still  get 
"  stuck  "  at  a  certain  place,  take  the  sheet  music,  but  play  only  that 
place  (several  times,  if  necessary),  and  then  begin  the  piece  over 
again,  as  a  test  if  you  have  better  luck  this  time  with  those  elusive 
places.  If  you  still  fail,  resume  your  silent  reading  of  the  piece 
away  from  the  piano.  Under  no  circumstances  skip  the  unsafe 
place  for  the  time  being  and  proceed  with  the  rest  of  the  piece. 
By  such  forcing  of  the  memory  you  lose  the  logical  development 
of  your  piece,  tangle  up  your  memory,  and  injure  its  receptivity. 

With  regard  to  technical  work:  Play  good  compositions  and 
construe  out  of  them  your  own  technical  exercises.  In  nearly  every 
piece  you  play  you  will  find  a  place  or  two  of  which  your  conscience 
tells  you  that  they  are  not  up  to  your  own  wishes  —  that  they  can 
be  improved  upon  either  from  the  rhythmical,  dynamical,  or  pre- 
cisional  point  of  view.  Give  these  places  the  preference  for  a  while, 
but  do  not  fail  to  play  from  time  to  time  again  the  whole  piece,  in 
order  to  put  the  erstwhile  defective  and  now  repaired  part  into 
proper  relation  to  its  context.  Remember  that  a  difficult  part  may 
"  go  "  pretty  well  when  severed  from  its  context  and  yet  fail  utterly 
when  attempted  in  its  proper  place. 


1 66  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

As  to  the  number  of  pieces :  The  larger  the  number  of  good 
compositions  you  are  able  to  play  in  a  finished  manner,  the  better 
grow  your  opportunities  to  develop  your  versatility  of  style;  for 
in  almost  every  good  composition  you  will  find  some  traits,  peculiar 
to  itself  only,  which  demand  an  equally  special  treatment.  To  keep 
as  many  pieces  as  possible  in  your  memory  and  in  good  technical 
condition,  play  them  a  few  times  each  week.  Do  not  play  [each], 
however,  in  consecutive  repetitions.  Take  one  after  the  other. 
After  the  last  piece  is  played,  the  first  one  will  appear  fresh  again 
to  your  mind.  This  process  I  have  tested  and  found  very  helpful 
in  maintaining  a  large  repertory.  (4  :  19-27) 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  automatizing  associations.  — 
This  will  conclude  the  third  of  the  chapters  which  deal  pri- 
marily with  processes  of  association  in  teaching.  Of  these, 
Chapter  VI  treated  the  problem  of  forming  correct  motor 
responses  to  situations  ;  Chapter  VII  contained  a  discussion 
of  the  best  methods  of  associating  symbols  and  meanings. 
The  present  chapter  has  emphasized  the  most  economical 
and  effective  methods  of  automatizing  or  making  permanent 
various  types  of  associations.  A  summary  of  the  important 
factors  in  such  economical  automatizing  is  found  at  the  be- 
ginning of  this  chapter.  In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  take 
up  the  third  type  of  learning  which  we  are  to  consider, 
namely,  reflective  thinking. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General  discussions  of  practice  or  drill,  i.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.  The 
Educative  Process.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1905.)  Pp.  328-331. 
A  very  influential  chapter. 

2.  COLVIN,  S.  S.     The  Learning  Process.    (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911.)    Pp.  40-46,  64-70,  159-178.    Brief  reliable  summaries  of 
experimental  evidence. 

3.  COLVIN,  S.  S.   The  Practical  Results  of  Recent  Studies  in  Educa- 
tional Psychology.   School  Review,  May,  1913.   Vol.  XXI,  pp.  307-322. 

4.  HOFMANN,  JOSEF.  Piano  Playing.  (Doubleday,  Page  &  Company, 
1908.)   Pp.  19-33.   Very  readable  essays. 


PRACTICE  OR  DRILL  167 

5.  KIRKPATRICK,    E.    A.     Genetic  Psychology.    (The    Macmillan 
Company,  1909.)   Pp.  111-140.    General  discussion  of  habit  formation. 

6.  LADD,  G.  T.,  and  WOODWORTH,  R.  S.  Elements  of  Physiological 
Psychology.   (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  191 1.)    Pp.  572-582.    Brief  sum- 
mary and  interpretation  of  experimental  data. 

7.  MEUMANN,  E.   The  Psychology  of  Learning.  (D.  Appleton  and 
Company,  1913.)    Pp.  231-364.    Extended  summary  and  interpretation 
of  the  experimental  evidence  by  the  leading  contemporary  German 
authority. 

8.  STRAYER,  G.  D.    The  Teaching  Process  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911.)   Pp.  41-50.    Good  pedagogical  discussion. 

9.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    The  Psychology  of  Learning,  being  Vol.  II 
of  Educational  Psychology.  (Teachers  College,  1913.)    The  standard 
critical  summary  in  English  of  experimental  investigations  of  practice. 
Should  be  studied  by  all  instructors.    Too  difficult  for  undergraduates. 

10.  WATT,  H.  J.  The  Economy  and  Training  of  Memory.  (Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  1910.)  An  excellent  little  manual  based  on  results 
in  experimental  psychology. 

Special  experimental  investigations.  1 1 .  ABBOTT,  E.  A.  On  the 
Analysis  of  the  Factor  of  Recall  in  the  Learning  Process.  Psycho- 
logical Re-view  Monograph  Supplements,  1909,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  159-177. 
Experimental  justification  of  the  use  of  recall. 

1 2.  BOOK,  W.  F.  The  Psychology  of  Skill.  Bulletin  No.  33,  Psycho- 
logical Series,  No.  I.   (University  of  Montana  publications,  1908.)    Ex- 
tended report  of  elaborate  experiments  on  practice  in  typewriting. 

13.  BRYAN,  W.  L.,  and  HARTER,  N.   Studies  in  the  Physiology  and 
Psychology  of  the  Telegraphic  Language.  Psychological  Review,  1897, 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  27-53,  and  1899,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  345-375.    A  widely  quoted 
study. 

14.  DEARBORN,  W.  F.    Experiments  in  learning.  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology,  1910,  Vol.  I,  pp.  384-387.   Experiment  on  memo- 
rizing vocabularies. 

15.  EBBINGHAUS,  H.   Memory.   (Published  1885,  translated  1913, 
Teachers    College,   Columbia   University.)    The  pioneer  experimental 
investigation  of  memorizing. 

1 6.  LAKENAN,  MARY  E.  The  Whole  and  Part  Methods  of  Memoriz- 
ing Poetry  and  Prose.  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  April,  1913, 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  189-198.  Verifies  earlier  work  on  poetry  and  includes  work 
on  prose  to  three  hundred  words. 

17.  LEUBA,  J.  H.,  and  HYDE,  W.    An  Experiment  in  Learning  to 
make  Hand  Movements.  Psychological  Review,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  351-369. 
Shows  superiority  of  distributed  practice  in  learning  German  script. 


168  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

1 8.  LYON,  D.  O.    Relation  of  Length  of  Material  to  Time  taken  for 
Learning  and  the  Optimum  Distribution  of  Time.  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  1913,  Vol.  V,  pp.  155-163. 

19.  PYLE,  W.  H.    Economical  Learning.   Journal  of  Educational 
Psychology,  March,  1913,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  148-158.    Shows  thirty  minutes 
of  practice  a  day  is  best  with  new  alphabets. 

19  a.  PYLE,  W.  H.  Concentrated  Versus  Distributed  Practice.  Jour- 
nal of  Educational  Psychology,  May,  1914,  Vol.  V,  pp.  247-258. 
Experiments  on  typewriting  show  that  distributed  practice  is  better,  but 
if  one  is  in  a  hurry  to  acquire  skill,  the  diminished  returns  from  concen- 
trated practice  are  not  prohibitive. 

20.  PYLE,  W.  H.,  and  SNYDER,  J.  C.  The  most  economical  unit  for 
committing  to  memory.   Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,   1911. 
Vol.  II,  pp.  133-142.    Shows  superiority  of  whole  unit  up  to  two  hun- 
dred forty  lines  of  poetry. 

21.  RUGER,  H.  A.     The  Psychology  of  Efficiency.    (The  Science 
Press,  New  York,  1910.)   Experiments  on  solving  puzzles. 

22.  SWIFT,  E.  J.    Mind  in  the  Making.   (Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
1908.)   Pp.  169-218.    Reports  experiments  on  tossing  balls,  on  type- 
writing, and  on  learning  Russian. 

23.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.   The  Curve  of  Work.   Psychological  Review, 
May,  1912,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  165-194.  Technical  criticism  of  the  interpre- 
tations of  mixed  fatigue  and  practice  effects. 

Additional  references.  —  For  important  practical  additions  to  this 
bibliography,  see  Exercises  for  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools" 
p.  E8i. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  VIII  with  numerous 
practical  examples  of  drill  processes  in  high  schools,  see  Exercises  for 
"  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  E  74-E  81. 


CHAPTER  IX 

REFLECTIVE  THINKING 

PROBLEM-SOLVING.  ACQUIRING  ABSTRACT  AND 
GENERAL  MEANINGS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  The  third  type  of  learning  that 
is  to  be  considered  is  reflective  thinking. 

2.  In  the  form  of  problem-solving,  reflective  thinking  plays  a 
large  part  in  many  school  subjects  and  in  social  life. 

3.  The  social  sciences  furnish  some  of  the  best  opportunities 
for  problem-solving. 

4.  A  study  of  the   nature  of  problem-solving  shows  that   it 
involves  the  evaluation  of  many  suggestions,  of  which  many  may 
not   be  useful.    Hence  the  process  often  necessarily  consumes 
considerable  time. 

5.  The  teacher  should  assist  students  (a)  to  define  the  problem 
carefully  and  to  keep  it  clearly  in  mind ;  (£)  to  be  fertile  in  sugges- 
tion by  analyzing  the  problem  and  formulating  definite  hypotheses 
or  recalling  general  principles  that  may  apply ;  (c)  to  evaluate  criti- 
cally each  suggestion  presented  and  to  verify  those  which  are  tenta- 
tively accepted ;  and  (*/)  to  keep  the  thinking  carefully  organized  by 
taking  stock  of  progress  made  and  by  using  methods  of  tabulation 
and  graphic  representation. 

6.  The  following  types  of  opportunities  for  reasoning  are  pre- 
sented to  students  :  (a)  to  reason  independently  ;  (t>)  to  participate 
in  group  reasoning ;    (c)  to  follow  and  supplement  the  teacher's 
reasoning ;  (d)  to  follow  a  course  of  reasoning  expressed  in  a  book. 
All  of  these  are  profitable  for  bright  students  but  not  equally  so 
for  poor  ones. 

7.  Acquiring  abstract  and  general  meanings  is  prominent  in 
many  subjects,  especially  those  possessing  a  technical  terminology, 
and  is  an  important  aspect  of  reflective  thinking. 

169 


1 70  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

8.  The  best  starting  point  for  teaching  a  new  abstraction  is  a 
familiar,  personal  experience.    Many  new  abstract  meanings  may 
be  derived  from  experiences  already  possessed  by  students. 

9.  For  poor  or  mediocre  students  active  analytical  thought  is 
the  best  basis  for  learning  new  abstractions.     Superior  students 
may  learn  them  easily  from  expository  teaching. 

10.  For  many  technical  terms  an  exact  definition  is  necessary. 
This  should  be  reached  by  the  students  by  a  continuous  process 
of  summarizing  or  generalizing  as  the  thinking  proceeds. 

11.  General  ideas  aid  in  solving  personal  and  social  problems 
(a)  by  enabling  one  to  apply  to  a  particular  case  the  method  of 
treatment  appropriate  to  the  whole  class,  and  (£)  by  opening  up 
possibilities   of   inferring   many  practical   corollaries  which   may 
necessarily  follow  from  the  general  fact. 

Problem-solving  and  acquiring  abstract  and  general  mean- 
ings. —  In  preceding  chapters  we  considered  two  types  of 
learning,  namely,  acquiring  motor  skill  and  associating  sym- 
bols and  meanings.  The  third  type,  which  we  shall  take  up 
in  this  chapter,  is  reflective  thinking.  Two  aspects  will  be 
considered.  The  first  is  problem-solving.  It  involves  not 
simply  the  recalling  of  ideas  in  old-established  connections, 
but  the  searching  for  and  testing  of  means  of  dealing  with 
new  and  perplexing  situations.  The  second  aspect,  which 
we  shall  consider  in  the  second  section  of  the  chapter,  is  the 
acquiring  of  clearly  defined  abstract  and  general  meanings, 
such  as  acceleration,  wealth,  justice,  etc. 

SECTION  I.    PROBLEM-SOLVING 

May  be  required  in  other  subjects  than  mathematics  and 
natural  science.  —  This  type  of  learning  may  be  present  in 
most  school  subjects  but  is  especially  prominent  in  a  few  as 
subjects  are  ordinarily  taught.  Evidently  mathematics  and 
natural  science  provide  for  problem-solving.  The  grammati- 
cal work  in  a  foreign  language  does  this  also,  since  it  is 
practically  the  study  of  the  science  of  language.  Because 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  l/I 

these  subjects  have  provided  for  reflective  thinking  in  the 
past  more  than  other  subjects  have,  it  has  been  claimed  that 
they  offer  superior  opportunities  for  training  in  this  kind  of 
learning ;  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  opportunities  for  solving 
problems  need  not  be  confined  to  these  subjects.  For  ex- 
ample, historical  and  social  studies  may  be  taught  so  as  to 
require  much  reflective  thinking  by  students.  In  fact,  studies 
of  human  nature  and  society  (psychology,  ethics,  sociology, 
civics,  economics,  education)  lend  themselves  very  easily  to 
this  type  of  treatment.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  most 
students  already  have  the  raw  material,  the  elements  of  these 
studies,  within  their  own  lives,  and  have  had  considerable 
experience  in  solving  problems  of  human  nature. 

Socrates  demonstrated  possibilities  in  social  sciences.  — 
The  possibilities  of  reflective  thinking  in  connection  with 
studies  of  human  nature  and  society  are  illustrated  by  the 
teaching  done  by  Socrates  (469-399  B.C.),  the  founder  of 
the  so-called  but  lattle  understood  Socratic  method.  Socrates 
in  his  discussions  dealt  largely  with  problems  of  the  social 
sciences.  Upon  meeting  the  youth  of  Athens,  he  quizzed 
them  about  their  experiences,  raised  questions  which  per- 
plexed them,  and  then  guided  them  through  a  maze  of 
further  perplexities  to  some  goal  which  he  had  in  mind. 
To  be  sure,  most  of  the  reflective  thinking  was  done  by 
Socrates,  and  the  audience  simply  served  to  furnish  points 
of  departure  or  foils  for  his  discussions,  but  the  latter 
furnish  clear  evidence  of  the  possibilities  of  instruction  in- 
volving reflective  thinking  in  connection  with  social  studies. 

Problem-solving  methods  used  in  an  economics  textbook.  — 
The  possibilities  of  using  a  problem-solving  method  in  school 
in  the  teaching  of  the  social  subjects  are  illustrated  by  the 
"  Outlines  of  Economics  developed  in  a  Series  of  Prob- 
lems," prepared  by  members  of  the  department  of  Political 
Economy  of  The  University  of  Chicago  (L.  C.  Marshall, 
C.  W.  Wright,  and  J.  A.  Field).  In  this  book  of  some 


1/2  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

hundred  fifty  pages  there  is  practically  none  of  the  ordinary 
descriptive  or  expository  material  found  in  most  textbooks. 
Instead,  the  book  consists  almost  wholly  of  carefully  organized 
series  of  questions  preceded  by  brief  outlines  of  the  main 
topics  under  consideration.  The  following  quotation,  which 
is  given  at  some  length  in  order  to  illustrate  the  method 
fully,  is  taken  from  pages  28-29  of  the  book. 

I.  SPECIALIZATION 

a)  Specialization  in  Relation  to  Exchange. 
b}  The  Separation  of  Occupations. 

c)  The  Division  of  Labor. 

d)  Territorial,  or  Geographical,  Specialization. 

i.  Grouping  of  Related  Industries, 
ii.  Grouping  of  Many  Plants  of  the  Same  Industry. 

e)  Factors  Limiting  the  Degree  of  Specialization. 

i.  The  Nature  of  the  Industry. 

ii.  The   Extent  of  the  Market.     (Note  the  relation  of 

transportation  to  the  extent  of  the  market.) 
iii.  Social  Institutions, 
iv.  Financial  Organization. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  any  specialization  of  economic  activity  possible  so  long 
as  every  individual  must  supply  all  his  needs  independently  ?    For 
example,  could  the  distinction  between  farmer  and  hunter,  or  be- 
tween hunter  and  fisherman,  arise  under  such  conditions  ? 

2.  Does   the  domestic   specialization   according  to  which  the 
woman  cooks  and  weaves  while  the  man  hunts  or  cultivates  the 
soil  depend  on  exchange  ? 

3.  Can  you  think  of  anyone  to-day  who  engages  in  every  kind 
of  work  necessary  to  produce  the  commodities  which  he  uses  ? 

4.  Why  can  more  be  produced  by  a  given  number  of  persons 
if  each  devotes  himself  to  a  special  operation  ? 

5.  Do  the  advantages  of  specialization  apply  to  the  use  of 
capital  and  land  as  well  as  to  the  employment  of  labor? 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  1/3 

6.  Give   examples   from   your   own  observation   of   (a)   the 
division  of  labor ;    (£)  territorial  grouping  of  related  industries ; 
(c)  territorial  grouping  of  plants  of  the  same  industry. 

7.  What  were  the  motives  that  led  to  the  specialization  you 
have  mentioned  in  answering  (<£).  and  (c)  under  question  6  ? 

8.  Give  concrete  examples  of   cases  where  specialization  is 
limited  by  the  nature  of  the  industry  itself. 

9.  Can  specialization  be  carried  as  far  in  bicycle  repair  shops 
as  in  bicycle  manufacturing  ?   Why  or  why  not  ? 

10.  Give  examples  of  specialized  occupations  which  are  made 
possible  by  the   degree   of   exchange   cooperation   which   exists 
within  (a)   small  villages;    (^)  towns   of    5000    inhabitants;    (<r) 
large  cities. 

11.  Show  specifically  how  specialization  has  depended  on  the 
widening  of  the  market. 

12.  Is  it  in  general  more  true  that  widening  markets  have  led 
to  specialization  or  that  the  increased  productivity  of  specialized 
industry  has  enlarged  markets  ? 

13.  Nowadays  one   machine   completes   the   process   of   pin- 
making,  which  in  Adam   Smith's  day  occupied  ten  men.    Has 
there  been  an  increase  or  a  decrease  in  specialization  ? 

14.  What  new  forms  of  specialization  and  what  enlargements 
of  the  market  accompanied  the  transition   from  the  handicraft 
system  to  the  factory  system? 

1 5 .  Show  how  specialization  of  industry  in  respect  to  (a)  prod- 
ucts and  (£)  location   is   related  to  the  development  of   trans- 
portation. 

1 6.  Cite  instances  where  social  institutions  affect  the  degree  of 
specialization. 

17.  How   has   the   increasing   economic   freedom   of    women 
reacted   upon    specialization  ?     What    further    changes    may   be 
expected  ? 

1 8.  Show  the  relation  of  financial  organization  to  the  extent  of 
specialization.    (17 :  28—29) 

These  questions  are  supplemented  by  assigned  readings. 
Problem-solving-  in  history.  —  Opportunities  for  problem- 
solving  are  also  found  in  the  teaching  of  history.    Thus, 


174  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

after  stating  that  a  few  large,  important  topics  should  be 
chosen  for  intensive  study  in  this  subject,  De  Garmo  says  : 

Each  of  these  gives  rise  to  one  or  more  problems  proper,  and 
usually  to  a  number  of  subsidiary  aims.  For  instance,  in  the  case 
of  the  frontier  the  main  problem  before  the  class  would  be  to  de- 
termine the  influence  of  the  frontier  in  American  history.  About 
this  problem  will  cluster  the  gathering  of  historical  facts,  the  influ- 
ences that  have  a  causal  power,  and  the  various  channels  through 
which  these  causes  produce  their  diverse  effects.  In  other  words, 
the  main  problem  will  break  up  into  a  number  of  subsidiary  ones, 
as,  for  example,  What  influence  had  the  trapper's  frontier  upon 
that  of  the  rancher  ?  What  modifying  influences  had  the  settle- 
ments immediately  beyond  the  "  fall  line  "  upon  those  below  it  ? 
How  did  the  frontier  regions  control  legislation  for  internal  im- 
provements ?  for  the  distribution  of  the  public  domain  ?  for  protec- 
tion to  new  industries,  etc.  ?  (4  :  82) 

Organized  exercises  for  reasoning  in  history. — A  scheme 
for  organizing  the  teaching  of  history  so  as  to  provide  just 
as  definite  exercises  in  reflective  thinking  as  are  provided  in 
mathematics  or  science  is  described  by  M.  W.  Keatinge,  an 
English  writer,  in  a  book  entitled  "  Studies  in  the  Teaching 
of  History."  The  exercises  are  to  be  based  upon  the  exami- 
nation and  study,  by  the  pupils,  of  selected  passages  from 
documents  in  English  history.  In  discussing  his  plan  for  the 
exercises,  Keatinge  says : 

Our  subject,  then,  must  be  reduced  to  problem  form,  and  our 
pupils  must  be  confronted  with  documents  and  forced  to  exercise 
their  minds  upon  them.  A  word  of  explanation  is  here  needed.  It 
is  possible  and  suitable  to  derive  a  portion  of  our  method  from  the 
scientific  processes  of  the  historian,  but  it  must  not  be  imagined 
that  the  aim  is  to  convert  schoolboys  into  historians.  The  boy  is 
no  more  placed  in  the  position  of  the  historian,  who  weighs  and 
estimates  his  raw  material,  than  the  boy  in  the  laboratory  who  is 
being  put  through  a  course  of  practical  work  is  ...  being  placed 
in  the  position  of  the  scientific  discoverer.  Neither  does  the  pupil, 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  175 

as  the  American  votaries  of  the  source  method  would  have  it, 
construct  his  own  history  and  write  his  own  textbook.  What  really 
takes  place  is  widely  different.  The  boy  is  given  problems  and 
exercises  devised  so  that  they  suit  his  strength  and  cultivate  cer- 
tain activities  and  powers,  and  these  exercises  are  of  a  highly  arti- 
ficial kind.  They  are  as  artificial  in  their  relation  to  historical 
method  as  the  exercises  and  proofs  in  the  school  algebra  are  to 
the  mathematics  of  the  engineer,  the  actuary,  and  the  advanced 
mathematician.  Scientific  historical  method  shows  the  schoolmaster 
the  way ;  his  instinct  and  his  experience  direct  him  to  the  details 
of  practice.  (15 :  38) 

The  exercises  provided  may  be  readily  graded  from  the 
standpoint  of  difficulty.  For  example,  an  easy  one  occurs  in 
case  the  class  is  studying  the  reign  of  Richard  II  and  the 
Peasants'  Revolt  but  has  not  been  introduced  to  any  of  the 
sources.  They  are  given  an  extract  from  Froissart,  without 
any  information  as  to  its  authorship.  The  exercise  and  its 
possible  answers  are  discussed  by  Keatinge  as  follows.  The 
italicized  statements  are  quotations  of  evidence  from  the 
source  in  question. 

Exercise.  From  the  internal  evidence  write  down  everything 
that  can  be  gathered  about  the  author. 

The  points  that  a  boy  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  get  hold 
of  are  the  following : 

1.  The  writer  was  contemporary,    from  the  information  I  had 
at  the  time  on  the  subject. 

2.  He  seems  acquainted  both  with  England  and  with  Europe. 
It  is  customary  in  England  as  well  as  in  several  other  countries. 

3.  He  appears  to  know  the  situation  in  England  very  well. 
For  example,  reference  to  Kent,  Essex,  Sussex,  and  Bedford. 

4.  He  seems  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  upper  classes.    The  evil 
disposed  \persons~\  in  these  districts. 

5.  But  is  at  the  same  time  sympathetic  with  the  rebels. 

6.  He  may  have  been  a  priest  with  conservative  tendencies. 
A  crazy  priest,  who  for  his  absurd  preaching. 


176  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

General  inference  —  He  was  either  an  Englishman  who  had 
traveled  abroad  or  a  foreigner  who  had  come  to  live  in  England. 
He  may  have  been  a  man  of  humble  birth,  who  therefore  knew  the 
views  of  the  poorer  classes,  attached  as  a  secretary  to  some  noble 
house.  He  may  also  have  been  a  priest.  (15  :  41-42) 

For  an  example  of  a  source  book  in  history  which  uses  the 
problem-solving  method  see  number  14  in  the  bibliography 
at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  quote  examples  from  other  subjects 
to  show  that  problem-solving  not  only  plays  a  large  part  in 
mathematics  and  science  but  may  do  so  in  all  subjects  that 
have  any  large  intellectual  content.  These  problems  may  vary, 
in  length  of  time  consumed,  from  a  brief  one  in  algebra,  involv- 
ing a  half-minute  for  a  solution,  to  such  as  are  taken  up  in 
debates,  in  connection  with  which  students  sometimes  work 
for  months,  studying  the  problem,  formulating  it,  searching 
for  evidence,  organizing  their  ideas,  refuting  arguments,  etc. 

Problem-solving  is  an  important  activity  in  social  life. — 
The  importance  of  learning  that  involves  reflective  thinking 
is  easily  demonstrated.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  ability  to 
deal  with  new  and  perplexing  situations  is  an  important  ele- 
ment in  practical  efficiency.  The  conditions  of  life,  both  for 
society  as  a  whole  and  for  individuals,  are  continually  chang- 
ing, and  the  discovery  of  new  methods  of  thinking  and  behav- 
ing must  keep  pace.  The  relative  importance  of  this  type  of 
learning  varies,  however,  among  individuals,  when  compared 
with  learning  which  involves  motor  skill  or  the  automatizing 
of  manifold  associations  which  are  to  be  recalled  and  used 
over  and  over  again  in  fairly  fixed  forms.  In  many  vocations 
motor  skill  and  thousands  of  habitual  associations  play  a  larger 
part  than  do  the  opportunities  to  solve  problems  or  deal  with 
perplexities  by  reflective  thinking.  To  be  sure,  skill  in  reflec- 
tive thinking  is  a  useful  asset  in  any  position,  but  there  is  danger 
of  losing  sight  of  the  fact  that  other  types  of  activity  and  other 
modes  of  learning  are  also  important  elements  in  efficiency. 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  177 

Variations  from  great  inventions  to  everyday  domestic 
problems.  —  The  practical  inventor  and  the  innovator  in  the 
work  of  applied  science  furnish  striking  examples  of  the  social 
importance  of  reflective  thought.  With  them  rank  the  great 
originators  of  social  reforms,  the  men  and  women  who  fur- 
nish the  ideas  that  more  mediocre  thinkers  copy  and  put 
into  execution.  From  these  great  problem-solvers  we  may 
pass  by  gradual  steps  to  common  everyday  men  or  women 
with  their  domestic  and  economic  problems  or  perplexities, 
such  as  whether  to  feed  the  baby  cow's  milk  or  some  pre- 
pared food  ;  whether  to  whip  the  youngster  or  to  overlook  his 
misdeeds ;  whether  to  eat  all  the  meat  one  desires  or  to  be 
a  vegetarian  ;  whether  to  let  a  cold  run  its  course  or  to  con- 
sult a  physician ;  whether  to  pay  rent  or  buy  a  home  in  the 
building  association,  etc.  Many  persons  whose  vocational 
activities  are  highly  routinized  are  confronted  only  by  such 
problems  as  these.  In  the  lives  of  all  people,  however,  they 
play  a  very  important  part,  and  schools  are  beginning  to  realize 
this  and  to  provide  training  that  looks  toward  efficiency  in 
dealing  with  the  problems  of  common  everyday  life. 

Classification  of  everyday  problems.  —  A"  systematic  classi- 
fication of  these  everyday  problems  reveals  the  following  types 
if  we  adopt  the  basis  for  classification  used  in  Herbert  Spencer's 
"  Education,"  in  the  chapter  entitled  What  Knowledge  is 
Most  Worth  ? 

I.  Problems  of  health.  —  For  example:  What  shall  I  eat 
in  order  to  secure  the  best  physiological  results  ?  How  shall 
I  secure  adequate  ventilation  under  difficult  and  varying  con- 
ditions ?  How  shall  I  avoid  certain  common  diseases,  such  as 
tuberculosis  and  sexual  diseases,  with  their  attendant  dangers  ? 
What  steps,  such  as  cold  baths,  antiseptic  gargles,  etc.,  shall 
I  take  to  avoid  common  contagions,  such  as  colds  ?  What  can 
I  do  in  the  way  of  first  aids,  first  precautions,  etc.  in  the 
case  of  sickness  ?  What  is  a  reasonable  scientific  treat- 
ment of  simple  ailments  as  distinguished  from  superstitious 


1/8  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

traditional  treatment?    How  much  exercise  do  I  need  and 
what  opportunities  can  I  take  advantage  of  to  secure  it  ? 

2.  Problems  of  making  a  living.  —  For  example  :  What 
are  my  capacities  ;  that  is,  for  what  am  I  fitted  by  nature  ? 
What  are  the  opportunities  in  various  vocations  ?  What  arc 
my  opportunities  to  secure  training  and  how  can  I  best  take 
advantage  of  them  ?  How  shall  I  secure  a  position  ?  What 
attitude  shall  I  assume  toward  my  work  ?  How  keep  on  im- 
proving myself?  How  keep  in  touch  with  advances  in  my 
vocation  ?  How  devise  improved  methods  of  manufacturing, 
transporting,  selling,  recording,  etc.  ? 

3.  Domestic  problems.  —  For  example:  Shall  I  get  mar- 
ried ?  If  a  man,  can  I  support  a  family  ?  If  a  woman,  can  I 
keep  house  efficiently  (including  one  thousand  detailed  prob- 
lems for  reflective  thought)  ?  Is  my  prospective  "  better  half  " 
congenial ;  healthy,  especially  free  from  tuberculosis  and  sex- 
ual diseases  ;  likely  to  be  efficient  and  successful  ?  How  can  I 
best  distribute  the  income  for  food,  rent,  clothes,  recreation, 
etc.  ?  What  shall  I  feed  the  children  ?  How  discipline  them  ? 
How  direct  their  play,  reading,  home  education  ?  How  co- 
operate with   the   school  ?  How   save   and  invest  money  ? 
How  much  and  what  kind  of  insurance  shall  I  carry  ? 

4.  Civic  problems. —  For  example:   Shall  I  register  to- 
day ?    Shall  I  vote  ?    For  what  candidates  ?    Shall  I  keep 
my  yard  clean  and  beautiful  ?    How  shall  I  aid  charitable- 
enterprises  ? 

5 .  Recreational  problems.  —  For  example  :  Have  I  time 
to  read  for  pleasure  ?    Shall  I  read  what  I  like  or  read  for 
"  high  brow  "  motives  ?   How  much  shall  I  go  to  the  theater  ? 
Shall  I  go  to  be  amused  or  to  be  improved  ?    Shall  I  keep 
up  my  music  ?    Shall  I  play  golf  ?    What  clubs  shall  I  belong 
to  ?    Shall  I  play  bridge  or  poker  ?    Shall  I  gamble  ?    How 
shall  I  spend  my  vacation  ? 

These  are  typical  problems  of  everyday  life.    It  is  in  con- 
nection with  such  problems  that  most  high-school  students 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  179 

will  do  most  of  their  reflective  thinking  after  graduation. 
A  few  will  continue  their  education  and  undertake  scientific 
work  in  universities  and  continue  it  in  after  life,  but  only 
a  very  few.  Most  of  the  activities  related  to  health,  vocation, 
family,  society  at  large,  and  recreation  will  be  reduced  to 
the  plane  of  habit,  and  the  school  should  endeavor  to  estab- 
lish as  many  useful  habits  along  these  lines  as  possible.  But 
there  will  still  remain  many  perplexities,  of  which  those 
cited  in  the  above  classification  are  typical. 

May  depend  on  impulsive  decision  or  reflective  inquiry.  — 
It  is  important  to  remember  that  these  everyday  problems 
may  be  disposed  of  by  the  most  impulsive  decision  or  may 
lead  to  the  most  careful  kind  of  a  reflective  inquiry.  The 
problem  of  caring  for  and  feeding  a  baby  illustrate  these  two 
possibilities.  A  mother  may  rely  entirely  on  tradition,  routine, 
and  impulse  or  may  devote  several  hours  a  week  to  a  careful 
study  of  the  diet  which  is  best  adapted  to  the  child's  special 
needs.  The  determination  of  the  diet  of  adult  persons  and 
even  of  domestic  animals  offers  similar  opportunities  for 
reflective  thought  and  investigation. 

Planning  a  vacation  illustrates  solving  personal  problem.  — 
A  good  example  of  a  problem  to  which  persons  of  moderate 
means  devote  considerable  reflective  thought  is  how  and 
where  to  spend  one's  vacation.  The  problem  is  one  of  intense 
personal  interest  and  commonly  calls  forth  thoughtful  con- 
sideration and  prolonged  investigation  for  its  solution.  The 
type  of  thinking  and  the  methods  of  investigation  used  might 
well  serve  as  models  of  one  type  of  mental  activity  which  it 
would  be  desirable  to  secure  in  the  school.  If  students  would 
study  carefully  the  methods  by  which  they  solve  this  prob- 
lem or  some  other  which  makes  a  similar  personal  appeal, 
they  would  arrive  at  a  fair  understanding  of  the  psychology 
of  reflective  thinking  or  reasoning,  since  reasoning  may  be 
defined  as  reflective  or  purposive  thinking  which  solves  or 
tries  to  solve  problems. 


1 80  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Nature  of  mental  activity  in  problem-solving.  — Assistance 
in  understanding  how  students  carry  on  reflective  thinking  or 
reasoning  ought  to  be  secured  from  textbooks  on  psychology, 
but  unfortunately  the  accounts  found  in  these  are  often  con- 
fusing instead  of  helpful.  This  is  partially  due  to  the  fact  that 
writers  have  often  failed  to  distinguish  clearly  between  (a)  the 
character  of  the  thinking  process  as  it  goes  on  and  (b]  the 
qualities  of  the  finished  product  of  reflective  thought  after  it 
is  written  out.  The  finished  product  of  the  thinking  of  a 
scientist,  for  example,  does  not  represent  the  thinking  which 
he  has  done,  but  merely  the  ideas  which  he  cared  to  retain 
and  express.  Many  of  the  psychological  discussions  are  largely 
descriptions  of  what  is  found  in  the  attenuated  finished  product, 
and  leave  out  of  account  the  rich  thought-movement  which 
has  led  up  to  the  final  result. 

Difference  between  process  and  final  product  illustrated  in 
Kepler.  —  The  difference  between  the  process  of  reflective 
thought  and  its  finished  product  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following  account  of  the  investigations  made  by  Kepler 
(1571-1630),  the  great  astronomical  genius.  The  account  is 
quoted  from  William  Whewell's  "  History  of  the  Inductive 
Sciences." 

Advances  in  knowledge  are  not  commonly  made  without  the 
previous  exercise  of  some  boldness  and  license  in  guessing.  The 
discovery  of  new  truths  requires,  undoubtedly,  minds  careful  and 
scrupulous  in  examining  what  is  suggested,  but  it  requires,  no  less, 
such  as  are  quick  and  fertile  in  suggesting.  What  is  invention  ex- 
cept the  talent  of  rapidly  calling  before  us  many  possibilities  and 
selecting  the  appropriate  one  ?  It  is  true  that  when  we  have  rejected 
all  the  inadmissible  suppositions,  they  are  quickly  forgotten  by  most 
persons,  and  few  think  it  necessary  to  dwell  on  these  discarded 
hypotheses,  and  on  the  process  by  which  they  were  condemned,  as 
Kepler  has  done.  But  all  who  discover  truths  must  have  reasoned 
upon  many  errors  to  obtain  each  truth;  every  accepted  doctrine 
must  have  been  one  selected  out  of  many  candidates.  In  making 
many  conjectures  which  on  trial  proved  erroneous,  Kepler  was  no 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  181 

more  fanciful  or  unphilosophical  than  other  discoverers  have  been. 
Discovery  is  not  a  cautious  or  rigorous  process  in  the  sense  of  ab- 
staining from  such  suppositions.  But  there  are  great  differences, 
in  different  cases,  in  the  facility  with  which  guesses  are  proved 
to  be  errors  and  in  the  degree  of  attention  with  which  the  error 
and  the  proof  are  afterwards  dwelt  on.  Kepler  certainly  was  re- 
markable for  the  labor  which  he  gave  to  such  self-refutations  and 
for  the  candor  and  copiousness  with  which  he  narrated  them ;  his 
works  are  in  this  way  extremely  curious  and  amusing  and  are  a 
very  instructive  exhibition  of  the  mental  process  of  discovery.  But 
in  this  respect,  I  venture  to  believe,  they  exhibit  to  us  the  usual 
process  (somewhat  caricatured)  of  inventive  minds  —  they  rather 
exemplify  the  rule  of  genius  than  (as  has  generally  been  hitherto 
taught)  the  exception.  We  may  add  that  if  many  of  Kepler's 
guesses  now  appear  fanciful  and  absurd,  because  time  and  obser- 
vation have  refuted  them,  others,  which  were  at  the  time  equally 
gratuitous,  have  been  confirmed  by  succeeding  discoveries  in  a 
manner  which  makes  them  appear  marvelously  sagacious,  as,  for 
instance,  his  assertion  of  the  rotation  of  the  sun  on  [its]  axis  before 
the  invention  of  the  telescope,  and  his  opinion  that  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic  was  decreasing  but  would,  after  a  long-continued  dimi- 
nution, stop  and  then  increase  again.  Nothing  can  be  more  just, 
as  well  as  more  poetically  happy,  than  Kepler's  picture  of  the  phi- 
losopher's pursuit  of  scientific  truth,  conveyed  by  means  of  an 
allusion  to  Vergil's  shepherd  and  shepherdess. 

Malo  me  Galatea  petit,  lasciva  puella, 
Et  fugit  ad  salices,  et  se  cupit  ante  videri. 

Coy  yet  inviting,  Galatea  loves 
To  sport  in  sight,  then  plunge  into  the  groves; 
The  challenge  given,  she  darts  along  the  green, 
Will  not  be  caught,  yet  would  not  run  unseen. 

We  may  notice  as  another  peculiarity  of  Kepler's  reasonings  the 
length  and  laboriousness  of  the  processes  by  which  he  discovered 
the  errors  of  his  first  guesses.  One  of  the  most  important  talents 
requisite  for  a  discoverer  is  the  ingenuity  and  skill  which  devises 
means  for  rapidly  testing  false  suppositions  as  they  offer  themselves. 


1 82  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

This  talent  Kepler  did  not  possess ;  he  was  not  even  a  good  arith 
metical  calculator,  often  making  mistakes,  some  of  which  he  detected 
and  laments,  while  others  escaped  him  to  the  last.  But  his  defects 
in  this  respect  were  compensated  by  his  courage  and  perseverance 
in  undertaking  and  executing  such  tasks ;  and,  what  was  still  more 
admirable,  he  never  allowed  the  labor  he  had  spent  upon  any  con- 
jecture to  produce  any  reluctance  in  abandoning  the  hypothesis  as 
soon  as  he  had  evidence  of  its  inaccuracy.  The  only  way  in  which  he 
rewarded  himself  for  his  trouble  was  by  describing  to  the  world, 
in  his  lively  manner,  his  schemes,  exertions,  and  feelings.  (24 : 
291—292) 

Galtoris  description  of  reflective  thinking.  —  Another  ex- 
ample of  the  difference  between  the  finished  product  of  reflec- 
tive thought  and  the  process  itself  is  found  in  the  descriptions 
by  Sir  Francis  Galton  (1822-1911)  of  his  own  thinking  and 
of  that  of  others  in  solving  problems  or  organizing  a  series 
of  ideas.  Galton  said  : 

When  I  am  engaged  in  trying  to  think  anything  out,  the  process 
of  doing  so  appears  to  me  to  be  this :  The  ideas  that  lie  at  any 
moment  within  my  full  consciousness  seem  to  attract  of  their  own 
accord  the  most  appropriate  of  a  number  of  other  ideas  that  are 
lying  close  at  hand,  but  imperfectly  within  the  range  of  my  con- 
sciousness. There  seems  to  be  a  presence  chamber  in  my  mind 
where  full  consciousness  holds  court,  and  where  two  or  three  ideas 
are  at  the  same  time  in  audience,  and  an  antechamber  full  of  more 
or  less  allied  ideas,  which  is  situated  just  beyond  the  full  ken  of 
consciousness.  Out  of  this  antechamber  the  ideas  most  nearly  allied 
to  those  in  the  presence  chamber  appear  to  be  summoned  in  a 
mechanically  logical  way,  and  to  have  their  turn  of  audience. 

The  successful  progress  of  thought  appears  to  depend,  first,  on 
a  large  attendance  in  the  antechamber ;  secondly,  on  the  presence 
there  of  no  ideas  except  such  as  are  strictly  germane  to  the  topic 
under  consideration ;  thirdly,  on  the  justness  of  the  logical  mechan- 
ism that  issues  the  summons.  The  thronging  of  the  antechamber 
is,  I  am  convinced,  altogether  beyond  my  control ;  if  the  ideas  do 
not  appear,  I  cannot  create,  them  nor  compel  them  to  come.  The 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  183 

exclusion  of  alien  ideas  is  accompanied  by  a  sense  of  mental  effort 
and  volition  whenever  the  topic  under  consideration  is  unattractive ; 
otherwise  it  proceeds  automatically,  for  if  an  intruding  idea  finds 
nothing  to  cling  to,  it  is  unable  to  hold  its  place  in  the  antechamber, 
and  slides  back  again.  (12  :  203-204) 

James  and  Dewey  provide  best  discussions  of  reflective 
thinking.  —  In  recent  years  the  writings  of  William  James 
(1842-1910)  and  Professor  John  Dewey  have  tended  to  con- 
centrate attention  on  the  psychology  of  the  thinking  process 
itself  as  distinguished  from  the  logical  quality  of  the  finished 
products  of  such  thinking.  Dewey's  "  How  we  Think " 
(1910)  contains  the  best  accounts  of  the  results  of  this  study. 
It  takes  up  such  topics  as  the  following :  What  is  thought  ? 
The  need  for  training  thought.  The  analysis  of  a  complete 
act  of  thought.  Language  and  the  training  of  thought.  The 
recitation  and  the  training  of  thought,  etc.  The  student  who 
is  interested  in  studying  the  process  of  reflective  thought  in- 
tensively should  read  Dewey's  book  carefully  several  times. 
Most  of  the  recent  books  on  methods  of  teaching  exhibit 
results  of  Dewey's  influence. 

Dewey  s  summary  of  characteristics  of  reflective  thinking. 

-The  following  quotation  summarizes  Dewey's  characteri- 
zation of  reflective  thought.  In  reading  it  the  student  should 
have  in  mind  some  examples  of  reflective  thinking  which  he 
has  carried  on,  such  as  planning  a  vacation,  in  order  to  see 
whether  Dewey's  description  is  typical.  The  headlines  are  not 
in  the  original,  and  the  paragraphing  is  slightly  altered. 

Origin  in  some  perplexity .  — We  may  recapitulate  by  saying  that 
the  origin  of  thinking  is  some  perplexity,  confusion,  or  doubt 
Thinking  is  not  a  case  of  spontaneous  combustion ;  it  does  not 
occur  just  on  "  general  principles."  There  is  something  specific 
which  occasions  and  evokes  it.  General  appeals  to  a  child  (or  to 
a  grown-up)  to  think,  irrespective  of  the  existence  in  his  own  ex- 
perience of  some  difficulty  that  troubles  him  and  disturbs  his  equi- 
librium, are  as  futile  as  advice  to  lift  himself  by  his  boot-straps. 


1 84  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Form  a  tentative  plan  based  on  past  experience.  —  Given  a  diffi- 
culty, the  next  step  is  suggestion  of  some  way  out — the  formation 
of  some  tentative  plan  or  project,  the  entertaining  of  some  theory 
which  will  account  for  the  peculiarities  in  question,  the  considera- 
tion of  some  solution  for  the  problem.  The  data  at  hand  cannot 
supply  the  solution;  they  can  only  suggest  it  What,  then,  are 
the  sources  of  the  suggestion  ?  Clearly  past  experience  and  prior 
knowledge.  If  the  person  has  had  some  acquaintance  with  similar 
situations,  if  he  has  dealt  with  material  of  the  same  sort  before, 
suggestions  more  or  less  apt  or  helpful  are  likely  to  arise.  But 
unless  there  has  been  experience  in  some  degree  analogous,  which 
may  now  be  represented  in  imagination,  confusion  remains  mere 
confusion.  There  is  nothing  upon  which  to  draw  in  order  to  clarify 
it.  Even  when  a  child  (or  a  grown-up)  has  a  problem,  to  urge  him 
to  think  when  he  has  no  prior  experiences  involving  some  of  the 
same  conditions  is  wholly  futile. 

Plan  not  accepted  until  carefully  examined  and  criticized.  —  If 
the  suggestion  that  occurs  is  at  once  accepted,  we  have  uncritical 
thinking,  the  minimum  of  reflection.  To  turn  the  thing  over  in 
mind,  to  reflect,  means  to  hunt  for  additional  evidence,  for  new 
data,  that  will  develop  the  suggestion  and  will  either,  as  we  say, 
bear  it  out  or  else  make  obvious  its  absurdity  and  irrelevance. 
Given  a  genuine  difficulty  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  analogous 
experience  to  draw  upon,  the  difference,  par  excellence,  between 
good  and  bad  thinking  is  found  at  this  point.  The  easiest  way  is 
to  accept  any  suggestion  that  seems  plausible  and  thereby  bring 
to  an  end  the  condition  of  mental  uneasiness.  Reflective  thinking 
is  always  more  or  less  troublesome,  because  it  involves  overcoming 
the  inertia  that  inclines  one  to  accept  suggestions  at  their  face 
value;  it  involves  willingness  to  endure  a  condition  of  mental 
unrest  ....  Reflective  thinking,  in  short,  means  judgment  sus- 
pended during  inquiry,  and  suspense  is  likely  to  be  somewhat 
painful.  .  .  .  The  most  important  factor  in  the  training  of  good 
mental  habits  consists  in  acquiring  the  attitude  of  suspended  con- 
clusion and  in  mastering  the  various  methods  of  searching  for  new 
materials  to  corroborate  or  to  refute  the  first  suggestions  that  occur. 
To  maintain  the  state  of  doubt  and  to  carry  on  systematic  and  pro- 
tracted inquiry  —  these  are  the  essentials  of  thinking.  (5  :  12-13) 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  185 

Assisting  pupils  to  solve  problems.  —  Such  thinking  as 
Dewey  describes  has  various  characteristics  which  are  sum- 
marized in  these  quoted  paragraphs.  In  order  to  bring  out 
these  characteristics  more  clearly,  we  shall  take  up  several  of 
them  for  detailed  consideration.  In  each  case  we  shall  be 
interested  primarily  in  two  points;  namely,  (i)  how  is  the 
given  characteristic  related  to  efficiency  or  skill  in  reflective 
thinking,  and  (2)  how  can  the  teacher  assist  pupils  to  acquire 
or  exhibit  this  efficiency.  The  characteristics  will  be  taken 
up  under  the  following  main  headings. 

I.  Defining  the  problem  and  keeping  it  clearly  in  mind. 
II.  Stimulating  fertility  of  suggestion. 

III.  Critical  evaluation  of  suggestions. 

IV.  Methods  of  organizing  the  material  of  thinking. 

I.  Defining  the  Problem  and  Keeping  it  in  Mind 

Great  differences  between  individuals  in  ability  to  define 
Problems.  —  The  first  essentials  in  efficient  reflective  thinking 
are  (a)  to  get  the  problem  or  difficulty  clearly  in  mind,  that 
is,  to  get  it  clearly  defined,  and  (b)  to  keep  it  clearly  in  mind. 
There  are  interesting  individual  differences  in  the  ability  to 
follow  these  rules.  We  may  distinguish  roughly  three  degrees 
of  efficiency  in  locating  and  defining  problems. 

For  example,  in  what  may  be  assumed  to  be  a  perplexing 
situation,  at  one  extreme  we  shall  find  some  persons  who  will 
not  see  any  problem  in  it  at  all ;  they  will  not  realize  that 
there  is  anything  wrong  or  that  anything  needs  to  be  done. 
This  complacent  attitude  is  exhibited  by  people  in  all  types 
of  situations,  in  case  a  train  is  delayed  or  some  one  is  ill, 
or  if  the  tariff  needs  readjustment  or  a  school  curriculum 
needs  revision.  They  simply  "  sit  tight "  mentally  and  are 
not  disturbed. 

Somewhat  more  developed  than  this  type  are  those  per- 
sons  who  have  a  vague  feeling  that  something  is  wrong  and 


1 86  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

something  ought  to  be  done,  but  who  are  not  clear  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  problem.  They  are  likely  simply  to  look  worried 
and  wring  their  hands  or  to  jump  to  conclusions  and  do  various 
things  in  random  or  impulsive  ways.  Thus,  if  a  person  has 
a  headache,  an  observer  may  feel  sorry  but  sit  by  in  a  help- 
less sort  of  way ;  or  he  may  prescribe  soda  mints,  pepsin, 
hot  water,  aspirin,  salts,  liver  pills,  and  all  the  other  remedies 
that  he  can  recall  as  having  been  used  in  cases  of  headache, 
and  may  urge  the  sick  one  to  take  them  all.  Another  good 
example  is  found  in  the  activities  of  the  automobile  owner 
who  begins  to  tinker  in  all  sorts  of  random  ways  with  his 
machine  when  trouble  appears,  instead  of  making  some  in- 
tellectual study  of  the  problem  presented. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  skilled,  reflective  thinker,  represented 
in  the  case  of  the  headache  by  the  physician,  recognizes  that 
the  first  essential  is  to  define  the  problem  more  specifically 
by  finding  the  probable  cause  of  the  headache.  He  keeps 
this  problem  of  diagnosis  in  mind  and  works  on  it,  ask- 
ing questions  which  will  define  the  trouble  more  and  more 
clearly. 

Deliberative  bodies  have  difficulty  in  keeping  a  problem  in 
mind.  —  The  part  played  in  reflective  thinking  by  the  two 
factors  which  we  have  been  discussing,  namely,  (a)  locating 
and  defining  a  problem  and  (b}  keeping  it  clearly  in  mind, 
are  well  illustrated  by  the  thinking  done  in  a  deliberative 
body — for  example,  during  a  debate  in  a  committee  or  before 
a  legislative  assembly.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  very  surprising 
how  long  it  takes  a  body  of  well-educated  persons  to  get 
the  purport  of  a  motion  —  to  understand  what  is  the  prob- 
lem before  the  house.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  wonder- 
ful with  what  ease  they  will  wander  from  the  topic  of  the 
discussion — will  fail  to  keep  the  problem  clearly  in  mind. 
One  of  the  chief  attributes  of  a  skilled  presiding  officer  is 
his  ability  to  keep  the  discussion  to  the  problem  before 
the  house. 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  187 

Another  excellent  example  of  the  mental  activity  involved 
in  defining  problems  is  the  preliminary  work  done  by  de- 
bating teams  in  determining  the  exact  wording  of  a  question 
for  debate.  In  this  case  many  hours  may  be  spent  in  get- 
ting the  problem  in  mind  with  sufficient  clearness  to  secure 
a  satisfactory  wording. 

Teacher  should  assist  pupil  by  authority  or  suggestion.  — 
Since  the  failure  to  define  problems  definitely  and  to  keep 
them  clearly  in  mind  is  such  a  common  tendency,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  training  along  these  lines  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant phases  of  training  in  thinking.  In  this  connection 
the  teacher  serves  the  same  purpose  as  the  presiding  officer 
of  a  deliberative  body.  He  may  act  either  authoritatively, 
however,  or  by  suggestion  ;  that  is,  he  may  either  say  directly 
that  a  student  has  not  kept  the  problem  in  mind  or  he  may 
by  suggestion  lead  the  student  to  realize  this  and  thus  begin 
the  development  of  a  habit  of  self-criticism  and  self-checking. 

II.  Stimulating  Fertility  of  Suggestion 

Various  degrees  of  ability  depend  on  knowledge  and  re- 
call. —  The  second  aspect  of  efficient  reflective  thinking  con- 
cerns methods  of  stimulating,  systematizing,  and  controlling 
suggestions.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  person  who  thinks 
of  a  hundred  matters  related  to  the  perplexity  or  difficulty  or 
problem  is  more  likely  to  find  a  helpful  suggestion  than  the 
person  who  thinks  of  only  ten.  In  other  words,  fertility  in 
suggestion  is  a  helpful  factor  in  reflective  thinking.  This 
fertility  depends  upon  two  things  :  first,  knowledge  of  related 
ideas,  and,  second,  the  ease  and  fullness  with  which  these 
ideas  are  recalled  when  needed.  In  this  connection  we  find 
striking  differences  between  individuals  when  confronted  with 
a  problem  in  connection  with  which  they  should  recall  and 
use  their  knowledge.  Various  combinations  of  the  two  factors 
occur,  such  as  (a)  little  knowledge  and  meager  recall,  (b)  vast 


188  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

knowledge  but  meager  recall,  (c)  little  knowledge  but  rather 
full  recall,  (d)  vast  knowledge  and  fairly  full  recall.  It  is 
evident  that  the  last  combination  is  most  favorable  for  fertile 
suggestion. 

How  can  teacher  stimulate  maximum  of  suggestions  ?  — 
The  point  that  interests  us  here  is,  assuming  a  given  body 
of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  thinker,  How  can  the  teacher 
help  him  to  bring  it  to  bear  upon  the  problem  ?  that  is,  how 
can  the  teacher  stimulate  the  maximum  possible  fertility  of 
suggestion  under  the  circumstances,  and  how  can  he  train 
the  student  to  systematize  and  control  it  ?  The  answer  can 
be  discussed  to  advantage  under  several  subheadings. 

i .  Assist  students  to  analyze  situations.  —  The  teacher 
should  help  the  student  to  analyze  a  situation  into  its  parts 
or  aspects  as  a  means  of  systematically  stimulating  sugges- 
tions. Here  again  we  find  the 
most  striking  differences  between 
individuals  who  are  confronted 
with  a  problem  —  for  example,  students  who  are  trying  to 
solve  a  geometry  exercise.  The  unskilled  thinker  will  sit  and 
stare  at  the  problem  as  if  he  expected  the  solution  to  jump 
out  at  him.  A  better  type  of  thinker,  on  the  other  hand, 
will  begin  to  break  the  problem  up  either  by  an  analysis  of  its 
statement  or  by  an  examination  of  the  figure  which  has  been 
constructed.  Instead  of  depending  on  the  gross  situation  for 
suggestions,  he  will  pick  out  now  this  aspect,  now  another, 
in  hopes  that  the  correct  suggestion  may  occur.  By  multi- 
plying the  sources  of  suggestions  he  multiplies  their  number. 
By  dividing  he  conquers.  For  example,  let  a  student  be  given 
as  an  exercise  in  geometry  to  prove  that  the  sum  of  three  angles 
of  a  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  angles ;  or,  in  other  words,  to 
prove,  in  the  accompanying  figure,  that  Zi+Z2  +  Z3=2 
right  angles. 

The  student  who  begins  by  dropping  perpendiculars,  draw- 
ing bisectors,  drawing  parallel  lines,  prolonging  lines,  etc. 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  189 

would  be  more  likely  to  succeed  than  a  student  who  simply 
stares  at  the  unmodified  figure  without  drawing  or  imagining 
modifications. 

Similarly,  in  the  case  of  a  headache,  the  person  who  begins 
to  inquire  about  the  place  and  kind  of  aching,  what  the  suf- 
ferer had  been  doing,  whether  he  had  other  pains  also, 
whether  he  had  fever,  etc.  would  be  more  likely  to  find  a 
means  of  dealing  with  the  situation  than  one  who  did  not 
open  up  these  various  avenues  of  suggestion. 

As  a  third  example  of  the  value  of  analysis  in  reflective 
thinking,  suppose  the  problem  is  to  find  the  cause  of  the 
increased  cost  of  living ;  or,  to  make  the  situation  more  con- 
crete, suppose  a  man  wants  to  find  out  why  it  now  costs 
him  $  1 2  5  a  month  for  running  expenses,  whereas  two  years 
ago  it  cost  only  $100  a  month.  Obviously,  in  this  case  the 
first  step  is  a  careful  analysis  and  inventory  of  the  ele- 
ments which  enter  into  running  expenses.  Yet  hundreds 
of  persons  wonder  and  wonder  about  this  problem  without 
taking  the  first  step  to  find  out  where  the  increased  cost  lies. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  part  played  by  analysis,  James 
thus  compares  the  activities  of  the  reasoner  and  the  ordinary 
unanalytical  thinker: 

The  results  of  reasoning  may  be  hit  upon  by  accident.  [For 
example,  although]  the  stereoscope  was  actually  a  result  of  reason- 
ing, it  is  conceivable  .  .  .  that  a  man  playing  with  pictures  and 
mirrors  might  accidentally  have  hit  upon  it.  [Similarly,]  cats  have 
been  known  to  open  doors  by  pulling  latches,  etc.  But  no  cat,  if 
the  latch  got  out  of  order,  could  open  the  door  again  unless  some 
new  accident  of  random  fumbling  taught  her  to  associate  some 
new  total  movement  with  the  total  phenomenon  of  the  closed  door. 
A  reasoning  man,  however,  would  open  the  door  by  first  analyzing 
the  hindrance.  He  would  ascertain  what  particular  feature  of  the 
door  was  wrong.  The  lever,  for  example,  does  not  raise  the  latch 
sufficiently  from  its  slot  —  case  of  insufficient  elevation ;  raise 
door  bodily  on  its  hinges  !  Or  door  sticks  at  top  by  friction  against 
lintel  —  press  it  bodily  down !  ...  By  many  measurements  of 


190  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

triangles  one  might  find  their  area  always  equal  to  their  height 
multiplied  by  half  their  base,  and  one  might  formulate  an  empirical 
law  to  that  effect.  But  a  reasoner  saves  himself  all  this  trouble  by 
seeing  that  it  is  the  essence  ...  of  a  triangle  to  be  the  half  of 
a  parallelogram  whose  area  is  the  height  into  the  entire  base.  To 
see  this  he  must  invent  additional  lines,  and  the  geometer  must 
often  draw  such  to  get  at  the  essential  property  he  may  require  in 
a  figure.  The  essence  consists  in  some  relation  of  the  figure  to  the 
new  lines  —  a  relation  not  obvious  at  all  until  they  are  put  in.  The 
geometer's  sagacity  lies  in  the  invention  of  the  new  lines.  (6  Vol.  II : 
339-340) 

2.  Stimulate  formation  of  definite  hypotheses  and  recall 
of  general  principles.  —  The  teacher  will  also  assist  the  pupil 
to  formulate  a  number  of  hypotheses  or  guessed  solutions 
of  the  problem.  This  is  closely  related  to  the  systematic 
analysis  discussed  above,  but  brings  in  the  element  of  definitely 
formulated  possible  solutions  of  the  problem.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  a  person  suffering  from  a  headache  a  series  of  definite 
hypotheses  would  be  the  following:  (i)  The  headache  may 
be  due  to  acute  indigestion.  (2)  It  may  be  due  to  eyestrain. 
(3)  It  may  be  due  to  nervousness  or  mental  strain  accompany- 
ing divided  or  strained  attention.  (4)  It  may  be  a  phase  of 
some  infection,  such  as  malaria,  cold,  grippe,  etc.  Such  a 
series  of  hypotheses  forms  a  very  definite  basis  for  further 
suggestions,  which  may  be  treated  more  systematically  and 
hence  more  economically  and  effectively. 

Concerning  the  character  of  the  hypothesis,  De  Garmo  says : 

The  form  of  the  hypothesis  will  of  course  follow  the  solution 
called  for  by  the  nature  of  the  problem.  In  history  and  in  some 
departments  of  natural  science  it  will  call  for  either  prediction  as 
to  cause  or  effect,  or  both.  Were  the  problem,  What  was  the  effect 
of  English  home  politics  upon  English  colonial  policy  at  the  time 
of  the  [American]  Revolution  ?  the  facts  gathered  and  the  hypotheses 
devised  would  pertain  first  to  causes  and  then  the  .  .  .  prediction 
as  to  their  probable  effect.  In  similar  fashion  the  problem  may 
be  to  determine  the  influence  of  circumstances  upon  two  historical 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  191 

characters,  one  of  whom  appears  to  have  been  molded  by  them, 
while  the  other  seems  to  have  controlled  them  for  his  own  pur- 
poses. The  hypothesis  is  in  place  here,  even  though  it  is  as  shifting 
as  the  flight  of  birds.  Did  this  or  that  contingency  turn  the  expected 
victory  to  defeat  ?  Yes,  for  the  sleet  storm  retarded  the  designed 
movement  of  troops.  No,  for  there  were  more  fundamental  rea- 
sons, perhaps  of  a  psychical  nature ;  the  men  were  discouraged  by 
their  losses  and  the  apparent  hopelessness  of  their  cause.  (4  :  94) 

Methods  of  assisting  pupils  to  solve  geometry  exercises  by 
recall  of  propositions.  —  Another  way  of  expressing  this  same 
process  from  a  slightly  different  point  of  view  is  to  say  that 
the  teacher  should  assist  pupils  to  recall 
and  apply  general  principles  or  rules  which 
may  bear  on  the  problem.  This  is  well 


illustrated    in    the   case   of  the   student     3y 

solving  a  geometry  exercise  when  he  is  \ 

searching  for  the  previously  proven  propo-  * 

sitions  which  he  may  apply.  For  example,  in  the  proposition 
cited  above,  to  prove  that  the  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  a 
triangle  equals  two  right  angles,  the  propositions  which  the 
pupil  needs  to  apply  are  those  concerning  the  relationships 
of  angles  formed  when  parallel  lines  are  cut  by  transversals, 
as  in  the  accompanying  figure,  where  Z  i  =  Z2  =  Z3  =  Z  4 
and  /.  5  =  /.  6  =  /.J  =  Z&.  To  think,  without  assistance,  of 
the  application  of  these  propositions  to  the  problem  about  the 
triangle  is  probably  more  than  could  be  expected  of  any 
high-school  student.  Some  students  could  make  the  applica- 
tion with  a  little  assistance  from  the  teacher,  however,  while 
others  would  need  much  assistance  and  some  would  have  to 
be  told  outright.  The  various  stages  or  degrees  of  assistance 
which  the  teacher  might  offer  have  been  discussed  by 
Thorndike  as  follows : 

The  crucial  step  ...  is  the  direction  of  the  pupil's  search  for 
the  proper  class  under  which  to  think  of  the  fact  in  question.  .  .  . 


192 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


[This]  essential  step  in  reasoning  must  sometimes  be  omitted  in 
order  to  preserve  the  less  capable  pupils  from  vain  efforts  or  ran- 
dom guessing  and  to  save  time.  But  the  wise  course  is  not  to 
eliminate  altogether  the  independent  search  by  pupils  for  the 
proper  class,  but  to  make  it  easier  and  briefer  by  directing  it. 

It  is  made  easier  by  (i)  systematizing  the  process  of  search, 
(2)  by  limiting  the  number  of  classes  amongst  which  the  pupil 
must  search  for  the  right  one,  (3)  by  informing  him  of  classes 
which  include  the  right  one  and  which  he  would  neglect  if  undi- 
rected, and  (4)  by  calling  his  attention  to  the  consequences  of 
membership  in  this  or  that  class.  .  .  .  [In  other  words,  the  forms 
of  assistance  may  be  classified  as] 

1.  Systematizing  the  search. 

2.  Reducing  alternatives. 

3.  Suggesting  a  useful  alternative. 

4.  Suggesting  consequences.    (11:   161-163,173) 

To  parallel  Thorndike's  application  of  these  principles  to 
the  proving  of  a  geometry  exercise,  take  the  example  of 


A  c 

I.  DRAW  EBD  PARALLEL 
TO  AC 


II.  PROLONG  AC  AND  DRAW  CE 
PARALLEL  TO  AB 


proving  that  the  sum  of  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle  is 
equal  to  two  right  angles,  cited  above  on  pages  188  and  191. 
Probably  all  that  would  be  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  brighter 
pupils  would  be  to  carry  out  method  number  2,  namely,  re- 
ducing alternatives.  This  could  be  done  by  suggesting  that 
either  one  of  the  above  constructions  might  be  used. 

For  other  pupils  further  assistance  might  be  necessary. 
Perhaps  simply  systematizing  their  search  by  asking  them 
to  examine  the  relations  of  the  angles  thus  formed  would 
help.  If  this  did  not  prove  to  be  sufficient  aid,  they  might 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  193 

be  informed  of  the  classes  which  they  should  have  in  mind 
by  the  question,  "  What  relationship  exists  between  angles 
formed  when  parallel  lines  are  cut  by  a  transversal? "  Finally, 
if  more  assistance  were  needed,  the  consequences  could  be 
suggested  by  asking,  "In  the  case  of  figure  I  what  relation 
exists  between  Z  i  and  Z  4  ?  between  Z  3  and  Z  5  ?  What 
is  the  sum  of  Z  4  +  Z  2  +  Z  5  ?  " 

Thus  fertility  of  suggestion  may  be  stimulated  by  the 
teacher's  getting  students  to  analyze,  or  break  up,  a  problem 
or  situation  into  various  aspects,  to  formulate  various  hypothe-. 
ses  or  guessed  solutions  of  the  problem,  and  to  recall  and 
apply  certain  general  principles  which  they  have  in  stock. 

III.  Critical  Evaluation  of  Suggestions 

So  far  we  have  discussed  two  aspects  of  reflective  think- 
ing, namely  (I)  defining  the  problem  and  keeping  it  in  mind, 
and  (II)  fertility  of  suggestion.  The  third  aspect  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  critical,  unbiased  evaluation  of  suggestions  from 
the  standpoint  of  their  bearing  on  the  problem. 

Critical  ability  may  offset  mediocre  fertility  of  suggestion. 
-This  aspect  may  be  contrasted  with  the  second  aspect 
which  we  discussed,  namely,  fertility  of  suggestion.  Such 
fertility  is  valuable  only  when  it  is  correlated  with  the  other 
two  factors,  namely,  clear  realization  of  the  problem  and 
critical  selection  and  rejection  with  reference  to  it.  Here 
again  we  find  interesting  individual  differences.  A  person 
possessed  of  much  knowledge  and  ready  recall  may  be  an 
inefficient  thinker  because  he  lacks  critical  ability  or  critical 
habits.  Hence  the  child  who  may  be  considered  bright  when 
measured  by  the  standard  of  glib  suggestions  may  be  stupid 
when  measured  by  the  standard  of  critical,  controlled  thinking. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  person  may  be  only  mediocre  in  knowl- 
edge and  readiness  of  recall  but  be  a  fairly  efficient  thinker 
because  of  superior  critical  ability. 


194  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Expressed  as  aspects  of  the  teacher's  method,  the  dis- 
cussion of  unbiased  critical  evaluation  of  suggestions  may  be 
formulated  as  follows  : 

1.  Maintain    attitude    of    suspended  judgment.  —  The 
teacher  should  encourage  pupils  to  maintain  an  attitude  of 
suspended  conclusion  or  suspended  judgment.  This  is  neces- 
sary not  only  in  order  to  provide  for  a  thorough  canvass  of 
the  problem  but  also  in  order  to  obviate  bias  which  may 
interfere  with  the  thinker's  selection  and  evaluation  of  data 
or  evidence.    As  Dewey  says  in  the  quotation  given  above 
(page^  184),  "the  most  important  factor  in  the  training  of 
good  mental  habits  consists  in  acquiring  the  attitude  of  sus- 
pended conclusion." 

Discussing  the  matter  further,  he  says  : 

Imagine  a  doctor  called  in  to  prescribe  for  a  patient.  The 
patient  tells  him  some  things  that  are  wrong ;  his  experienced 
eye,  at  a  glance,  takes  in  other  signs  of  a  certain  disease.  But  if 
he  permits  the  suggestion  of  this  special  disease  to  take  possession 
prematurely  of  his  mind,  —  to  become  an  accepted  conclusion, — 
his  scientific  thinking  is  by  that  much  cut  short.  A  large  part  of 
his  technique  as  a  practitioner  is  to  prevent  the  acceptance  of  the 
first  suggestions  that  arise.  (5  :  74) 

The  maintenance  of  the  attitude  of  suspended  conclusion, 
however,  does  not  mean  that  the  student  will  refrain  from 
formulating  definite  hypotheses,  but  it  means  that  he  will 
evaluate  these  hypotheses  in  an  open-minded  and  unbiased 
way.  This  brings  us  to  the  next  phase  of  the  teacher's 
method  of  training  in  reflective  thinking. 

2.  Criticize  all  suggestions.  —  The  teacher  will  stimulate 
students  to  criticize  each  suggestion  and  to  think  out  its 
possible  consequences.    This  process  is  discussed  by  Dewey 
in  the  following  terms  : 

Acceptance  of  the  suggestion  in  its  first  form  is  prevented  by 
looking  into  it  more  thoroughly.  Conjectures  that  seem  plausible 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  195 

at  first  sight  are  often  found  unfit  or  even  absurd  when  their  full 
consequences  are  traced  out.  Even  when  reasoning  out  the  bear- 
ings of  a  supposition  does  not  lead  to  rejection,  it  develops  the 
idea  into  a  form  in  which  it  is  more  apposite  to  the  problem.  .  .  . 
Suggestions  at  first  seemingly  remote  and  wild  are  frequently  so 
transformed  by  being  elaborated  into  what  follows  from  them  as 
to  become  apt  and  fruitful.  (5  :  76) 

This  idea  is  so  well  illustrated  by  the  long  quotation  con- 
cerning the  investigations  by  Kepler,  given  above  on  page  1 80, 
that  further  examples  are  unnecessary. 

3 .  Be  systematic  in  selecting  and  rejecting  hypotheses.  — 
The  teacher  will  stimulate  students  to  be  systematic  in  select- 
ing useful  suggestions  and  rejecting  useless  ones.  The  em- 
phasis here  is  on  orderliness  in  selection  and  rejection. 
Critical  evaluation  will  proceed  much  more  economically  if 
it  can  be  so  ordered  as  to  avoid  useless  repetition.  Hence 
the  alternative  suggestions  or  hypotheses  which  present 
themselves  may  be  arranged  in  some  order,  and  then  con- 
sidered in  turn,  each  one  being  followed  through  in  a  careful 
and  fairly  thorough  way.  This  simply  means  that  the  rule 
about  keeping  the  problem  clearly  in  mind  is  applied  to 
the  consideration  of  the  various  subproblems  into  which  the 
main  problem  becomes  resolved.  An  unskilled  thinker  will 
jump  around  in  a  more  or  less  haphazard  way  from  one 
hypothesis  to  another.  In  this  way  he  goes  over  the  same 
ground  time  and  again  and  works  around  in  a  circle  to  a. 
considerable  extent.  Again,  illustrations  of  this  failure  in 
reflective  thinking  are  found  in  the  deliberations  of  legis- 
lative bodies,  committees,  etc.  The  chairman  is  constantly 
under  the  necessity  of  reminding  some  member  that  the- 
topic  or  suggestion  which  he  is  discussing  has  already  been, 
thrashed  out  in  the  previous  discussion  and  that  now  the: 
meeting  is  considering  some  other  aspect  of  the  case. 

This  emphasis  on  the  systematic  checking  and  following; 
through  of  one  aspect  at  a  time  does  not  mean,  however,. 


196  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

that  the  thinker  should  refrain  from  returning  to  reconsider 
any  hypothesis,  provided  some  new  evidence  or  implication 
occurs  to  mind  ;  but  he  ought  to  realize  clearly  at  the  time  that 
it  is  new  evidence  or  implication.  Even  in  this  case  it  may 
often  be  well  to  note  the  necessity  of  returning  for  reexami- 
nation  of  the  previous  hypothesis  but  to  continue  at  the  time  the 
consideration  of  the  aspect  to  which  attention  was  being  devoted 
at  the  time  the  evidence  for  reconsideration  came  to  mind. 

4.  Verify  by  further  evidence  and  by  testing  inferences.— 
The  teacher  should  stimulate  students  to  verify  their  conclu- 
sions. One  method  of  doing  this  is  simply  to  examine  other 
cases  to  see  if  the  conclusion  holds  for  them  also.  Thus,  when 
a  college  president  endeavors  to  prove  the  superior  value  of 
a  college  education  by  pointing  to  the  number  of  college 
graduates  who  have  attained  high  office,  the  unbiased  inves- 
tigator will  ask  for  further  evidence  in  the  form  of  a  random 
selection  of  college  graduates,  which  will  be  found  to  con- 
tain men  in  all  walks  of  life,  including  tramps  and  other  un- 
desirable citizens.  Or  if  a  high-school  principal  is  claiming 
that  he  has  a  superior  school  because  some  of  his  graduates 
have  won  honors  in  college,  verification  may  be  secured  by 
investigating  the  records  of  all  of  his  graduates  that  go  to 
college  from  several  classes. 

Example  of  Newton's  verification  of  law  of  universal 
gravitation.  —  Another  method  of  verification  is  to  infer 
from  the  conclusion  or  proposition  that  certain  other  results 
must  follow  if  it  is  true,  and  then  to  test  to  see  if  they  do 
follow  in  point  of  fact.  For  example,  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
(1642-1727)  desired  to  test  his  hypothesis  that  all  bodies 
attract  each  other  directly  as  their  masses  and  inversely  as 
the  square  of  the  distance  between  them,  that  is,  the  law  of 
universal  gravitation.  He  chose  the  attraction  between  the 
earth  and  the  moon  as  a  basis  for  verification,  and  compared 
the  inferred  movements  of  the  moon  according  to  his  law 
with  its  actual  movements  as  observed  by  astronomers.  He 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  197 

knew  from  actual  astronomical  observations  and  calculations 
that  the  moon  was  deflected  from  its  tangent  thirteen  feet  a 
minute ;  but  by  the  calculation  which  he  made  in  1666,  if 
the  moon  were  deflected  by  gravity,  according  to  his  law  it 
should  be  deflected  fifteen  feet  a  minute.  So  he  decided  that 
his  hypothesis  was  not  proved,  because  it  did  not  agree  with 
the  observed  astronomical  facts.  In  time,  however,  it  was 
discovered  that  the  magnitude  of  the  radius  of  the  earth 
which  he  had  used  in  his  calculation  of  1666  was  incorrect. 
In  1679,  using  the  correct  magnitude,  he  repeated  the  cal- 
culation of  the  deflection  of  the  moon  according  to  his  law, 
and  found  that  the  result  agreed  with  the  observed  facts  and 
consequently  verified  his  hypothesis. 

Two  methods  of  verification  illustrated  by  debate  concern- 
ing heredity  and  environment.  —  Both  methods  of  verifica- 
tion may  be  illustrated  by  the  debate  concerning  the  relative 
influence  of  environment  and  heredity  or  original  nature. 
One  person  may  make  the  statement  that  he  believes  heredity 
is  not  an  important  factor,  because  he  knows  of  a  particular 
case  in  which  a  son's  traits  could  not  be  derived  from  his 
parents.  Verification  in  this  particular  case  might  involve 
getting  further  evidence  about  it  —  further  family  history 
which  might  show,  for  example,  that  the  son  was  like  his 
grandfather  and  thus  establish  the  fact  of  heredity. 

The  other  method  of  verification  might  start  from  the  fol- 
lowing statement :  "If  heredity  or  original  nature  is  a  very 
powerful  factor,  we  may  infer  that  similar  children  who  are 
brought  up  under  different  circumstances  ought  to  remain 
similar,  and  different  (dissimilar)  children  who  are  brought 
up  under  identical  circumstances  ought  to  remain  different 
(dissimilar)."  The  verification  would  consist  in  finding  such 
cases  and  noting  the  actual  results,  as  Sir  Francis  Galton  did 
in  England  in  the  case  of  similar  twins  brought  up  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  and  dissimilar  twins  brought  up  under 
similar  circumstances.  The  evidence  was  strongly  in  favor  of 


198  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  influence  of  heredity ;  that  is,  the  similar  twins  brought  up 
differently  remained  similar,  and  the  dissimilar  twins  brought 
up  with  similar  training  remained  dissimilar.  (12:  216-246) 
Students  should  be  trained  to  accept  all  conclusions  as 
tentative  and  to  be  interested  in  searching  for  further  evi- 
dence and  working  out  the  further  implications  of  the  con- 
clusions in  order  to  determine  their  validity.  Among  untrained 
thinkers  nothing  is  more  striking  than  their  failure  to  require 
any  evidence  for  many  of  their  conclusions,  and  their  inability  to 
determine  the  value  of  evidence  when  it  is  presented ;  folklore, 
tradition,  and  general  gossip  are  accepted  as  being  reliable  and 
as  possessing  the  same  validity  as  conclusions  vouched  for  by 
competent  experts  and  backed  up  by  carefully  weighed  evidence. 

IV.  Organizing  the  Material  of  Thinking 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  considered  three  principal  aspects 
of  reflective  thinking :  (I)  defining  the  problem  and  keeping 
it  clearly  in  mind  ;  (II)  fertility  of  suggestion  ;  (III)  critical, 
unbiased  evaluation  of  suggestions.  The  fourth  aspect  con- 
cerns methods  of  organizing  the  material  of  thought  in  such 
a  way  as  to  assist  in  the  process  of  thinking.  In  this  connec- 
tion the  following  rules  may  be  discussed  : 

I .  Take  stock  periodically  and  keep  systematic  check  on 
field  covered. — The  teacher  should  stimulate  pupils  to  "take 
stock"  of  the  results  of  the  inquiry  from  time  to  time,  and  to 
express  these  in  a  concise,  clear  formulation.  This  is  particu- 
larly necessary  if  the  inquiry  takes  considerable  time.  The 
"stock-taking"  might  involve  a  review  of  the  suggestions  and 
hypotheses  that  have  been  made,  the  notation  of  steps  which 
are  completed,  the  statement  of  what  remains  to  be  done,  and 
the  concise  formulation  of  tentative  conclusions.  In  reflective 
thinking  a  person  ordinarily  thinks  of  so  many  things,  both 
relevant  and  irrelevant,  that  it  is  very  easy  for  him  to  get 
tangled  up  and  to  lose  track  of  what  has  been  done  and  what 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  199 

remains.  Moreover,  it  is  easy  fora  suggestion  to  slip  his  mind. 
He  may  have  noted  it  as  one  to  be  considered,  but  have  over- 
looked it  in  the  general  rush  of  associated  ideas.  If  the  think- 
ing is  being  done  by  a  class,  a  helpful  device  is  to  develop 
an  outline  on  the  blackboard  as  the  discussion  progresses. 

2.  Use  methods  of  tabulation  and  graphic  expression.— 
The  teacher  should  assist  students  to  devise  and  use  methods 
of  tabulation  and  graphic  representation  that  will  make  for 
economy  and  clearness  in  thinking.  The  graphic  represen- 
tation of  data  by  means  of  curves  of  distribution  is  a  device 
that  is  now  being  taught  even  to  children  in  elementary 
schools.  No  more  striking  example  of  the  value  of  this  aid  to 
thinking  can  be  found  than  the  well-known  Bryan  and  Harter 
curve,  which  shows  the  improvement  made  by  a  student  who 
is  learning  the  telegraphic  language  (see  above,  p.  145).  The 
rise  of  the  curve  and  its  characteristic  level  places,  or  plateaus, 
show  at  a  glance  what  the  character  of  the  learner's  progress 
has  been.  Numerous  examples  of  the  use  of  graphic  methods 
of  representation  are  to  be  found  in  the  textbooks  on  mathe- 
matics and  the  natural  and  social  sciences.  For  examples 
in  connection  with  educational  inquiries  see  the  curves  on 
pages  373,  376,  and  377,  below. 

Summary  of  suggestions  for  guiding  reflective  thinking. — 
In  the  foregoing  discussion  certain  rules  have  been  formulated 
in  terms  of  what  the  teacher  should  do  to  stimulate  efficient 
problem-solving  by  students.  These  rules  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows  : 

To  stimulate  and  assist  pupils  in  carrying  on  reflective  thinking  the 
teacher  should 

I.  Get  them  to  define  the  problem  at  issue  and  keep  it  clearly  in 
mind. 

II.  Get  them  to  recall  as  many  related  ideas  as  possible  by  encourag- 
ing them 

1 .  To  analyze  the  situation  and 

2.  To  formulate  definite  hypotheses  and  to  recall  general  rules 
or  principles  that  may  apply. 


200  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

III.  Get  them  to  evaluate  carefully  each  suggestion  by  encouraging 
them 

1.  To  maintain  an  attitude  of  unbiased,  suspended  judgment 
or  conclusion, 

2.  To  criticize  each  suggestion, 

3.  To  be  systematic  in  selecting  and  rejecting  suggestions,  and 

4.  To  verify  conclusions. 

IV.  Get  them  to  organize  their  material  so  as  to  aid  in  the  process 
of  thinking  by  encouraging  them 

1 .  To  "  take  stock  "  from  time  to  time, 

2.  To  use  methods  of  tabulation  and  graphic  expression,  and 

3.  To  express  concisely  the  tentative  conclusions  reached  from 
time  to  time  during  the  inquiry.  (This  topic  will  be  discussed  more 
fully  in  the  second  section  of  the  chapter.) 

Four  types  of  opportunities  for  students  to  do  reflective 
thinking.  —  The  opportunities  which  are  provided  for  stu- 
dents to  do  reflective  thinking,  and  which  the  teacher  may 
use,  can  be  classified  as  follows : 

1 .  Opportunities  for  the  student  to  do  his  own  reasoning, 
that  is,  to  reason  independently. 

2.  Opportunities  to  follow  and  supplement  the  reasoning 
of  other  students. 

3.  Opportunities  to  follow  and  supplement  the  reasoning 
being  done  by  the  teacher. 

4.  Opportunities  to  follow  and  supplement  the  reasoning 
set  forth  in  a  book. 

There  are  two  principal  questions  to  be  considered  in  con- 
nection with  each  of  these  opportunities  :  One  is  the  question 
of  time  and  the  other  is  the  question  of  value. 

I .  In  independent  reasoning  much  time  is  needed  for 
"scrapped"  thought.  —  As  suggested  in  the  descriptions  by 
Whewell  and  Galton  of  reflective  thinking  (see  pp.  180-183), 
in  reaching  the  solution  of  a  problem  there  is  an  enormous 
amount  of  waste  thought  even  by  such  geniuses  as  Kepler. 
Hundreds  of  suggestions  come  to  mind  which  are  not  perti- 
nent or  helpful  and  which  must  be  evaluated  and  rejected. 
All  this  takes  time,  but  if  an  individual  is  to  do  his  own 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  2OI 

reasoning,  the  time  and  opportunity  for  this  waste,  or 
"scrapped,"  thought  must  be  provided.  If  this  is  done  in 
the  school,  it  means  that  the  student  must  have  occasions 
to  work  by  himself,  to  solve  his  own  problems,  and  that  he 
must  not  be  expected  to  cover  nearly  the  amount  of  ground 
that  is  ordinarily  laid  down  in  the  course  of  study. 

There  are  extremists  who  argue  that  all  education  should 
consist  of  this  process  of  discovery  by  the  student.  Rousseau 
in  his  "  Emile"  and  Herbert  Spencer  in  his  chapter  on  Intel- 
lectual Education  have  presented  the  best-known  appeals  in 
favor  of  this  practice.  There  is  no  doubt  that  superior  train- 
ing may  be  secured  from  individual  research  by  the  student, 
stimulated  and  guided  by  the  teacher.  Consequently  a  certain 
amount  of  this  type  of  work  should  be  provided  in  the  form 
of  individual  problems  to  be  worked  out  by  laboratory  or 
library  investigations  or  merely  by  reflective  thinking  about 
the  problems. 

2.  Group  reasoning.  Bright  stzidents  achieve ;  slow  ones 
benefit  less.  —  But  profit  from  the  experience  of  others  as  well 
as  training  in  reflective  thinking  can  be  secured  if  the  other 
opportunities  noted  above  are  also  utilized.  Thus,  if  a  prob- 
lem is  being  worked  out  by  a  class  as  a  group  of  thinkers, 
each  individual  student  may  be  stimulated  and  held  respon- 
sible for  contributing  to  and  appreciating  the  solution.  As  a 
result  of  the  greater  fertility  of  suggestion  resulting  from  the 
larger  number  of  minds,  the  problem  may  be  solved  in  a 
shorter  time  and  yet  the  essentials  of  the  whole  process  of 
reflective  thought  may  be  retained.  The  greatest  difficulty  for 
the  teacher  is  to  make  sure  that  every  individual  participates 
and  contributes  as  he  should.  There  is  danger  that  only  the 
more  rapid  thinkers  will  make  suggestions  and  evaluate  them, 
and  that  the  slower  members  of  the  class  will  simply  observe 
the  results.  Even  if  this  is  the  case,  however,  the  slower  ones 
may  profit  somewhat  from  observing  the  process  by  which 
the  problem  is  solved.  Moreover,  even  though  they  do  not 


202  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

forge  ahead  with  suggestions  and  evaluations,  they  may  still 
be  "in  the  running "  and  profit  from  the  experience. 

Teacher  must  allow  pupils  to  evaluate  their  suggestions. — 
In  directing  this  type  of  group  thinking,  certain  dangers 
which  the  teacher  should  avoid  are  suggested  by  Dewey  in 
the  following  quotation : 

The  inductive  inference,  the  guess,  is  formed  by  the  student; 
[ordinarily],  if  it  happens  to  be  correct,  it  is  at  once  accepted  by 
the  teacher ;  or  if  it  is  false,  it  is  rejected.  If  any  amplification  of 
the  idea  occurs,  it  is  quite  likely  carried  through  by  the  teacher,  who 
thereby  assumes  the  responsibility  for  its  intellectual  development. 
But  a  complete,  an  integral,  act  of  thought  requires  that  the  person 
making  the  suggestion  (the  guess)  be  responsible  also  for  reason- 
ing out  its  bearings  upon  the  problem  in  hand  —  that  he  develop 
the  suggestion  at  •  least  enough  to  indicate  the  ways  in  which  it 
applies  to  and  accounts  for  the  specific  data  of  the  case.  Too 
often  .  .  . ,  after  calling  out  the  spontaneous  reflections  of  the 
pupils  (their  guesses  or  ideas  about  the  matter),  [the  teacher] 
merely  accepts  or  rejects  them,  assuming  himself  the  responsibility 
for  their  elaboration.  In  this  way  the  function  of  suggestion  and 
of  interpretation  is  excited,  but  it  is  not  directed  and  trained. 
(5  :  97-98) 

3 .  Usually  only  bright  pupils  profit  from  following  teachers 
reasoning.  — The  third  type  of  opportunity  for  reflective  think- 
ing, namely,  following  the  reasoning  done  by  the  teacher,  is 
probably  of  little  value  from  the  standpoint  of  training  in 
thinking  except  for  the  superior  students  who  approximate 
the  teacher  in  reasoning  capacity.  For  the  mediocre  or  poor 
student,  merely  observing  the  teacher's  activity  does  not 
provide  training  in  reasoning  any  more  than  watching  a  play 
trains  him  in  acting.  He  gets  some  training  from  it,  but 
not  much.  The  superior  student,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
be  trained  by  following  the  teacher's  reasoning.  For  one 
thing,  he  thinks  much  faster  than  the  teacher  talks ;  conse- 
quently he  is  anticipating  the  teacher  by  silent  suggestions  and 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  203 

evaluations.  A  comparison  of  these  with  those  made  by  the 
teacher  shows  him  whether  he  is  right  or  wrong.  Moreover, 
he  probably  not  only  follows  the  teacher's  reasoning  but  ob- 
serves as  well  the  latter's  method,  and  then  either  consciously 
or  unconsciously  imitates  it  or,  if  he  thinks  it  is  a  poor  one, 
may  purposely  avoid  it.  The  total  amount  of  training  received 
by  a  class  from  following  the  teacher's  reasoning  is  probably 
too  small  to  make  this  an  important  basis  for  such  training 
except  in  the  case  of  advanced  or  superior  students. 

4.  Properly  constructed  books  may  provide  good  opportu- 
nities for  reasoning.  —  The  fourth  kind  of  opportunity  for 
training  in  reflective  thinking,  namely,  following  and  supple- 
menting the  reasoning  outlined  in  a  book,  has  possibilities 
that  are  not  generally  appreciated.  It  is  generally  assumed 
that  a  book  provides  primarily  opportunities  for  acquiring  in- 
formation, but  the  possibilities  of  providing  also  for  training 
in  reasoning  approximate  in  some  subjects  the  possibilities  of 
providing  for  the  independent  individual  reasoning  discussed 
above  (p.  200,  §  i).  An  excellent  example  of  such  a  book  is 
the  textbook  on  economics  from  which  a  quotation  was  made 
at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  (see  p.  172).  Another  good 
example  is  E.  L.  Thorndike's  "  Principles  of  Teaching,"  in 
which  two  thirds  of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  exercises 
intended  to  give  students  training  in  thinking  about  problems 
of  teaching.  Other  examples  of  books  which  tend  to  provide 
for  reasoning  instead  of  mere  acquisition  of  facts  or  ideas 
are  the  recent  "  suggestive  "  geometries,  which  place  the  em- 
phasis upon  the  solution  of  exercises  instead  of  on  the  mem- 
orizing of  proofs  of  propositions.  One  of  the  best  arguments 
in  favor  of  this  tendency  is  found  in  A.  Schultze's  "Teaching 
of  Mathematics  in  Secondary  Schools."  It  reads  in  part  as 
follows  : 

The  most  common  error  of  geometric  instruction  is  the  fact  that  the 
knowledge  of  book  demonstrations  is  made  the  chief  object  of  the 
study. 


204  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  study  of  geometry  should  be  primarily  a  course  in  the 
solution  of  originals  and  general  methods  of  attack.  The  regular 
textbook  propositions  should  be  treated  as  exercises,  with  this 
difference,  that  the  facts  stated  by  them  should  be  remembered. 

Exercises,  however,  should  be  studied  not  in  order  to  be  remem- 
bered but  in  order  that  the  student  may  familiarize  himself  with 
geometric  working  methods,  which  will  enable  him  to  do  other  and 
more  complex  reasoning. 

The  student's  ability  and  progress  in  the  subject  can  be  meas- 
ured only  by  his  ability  to  solve  exercises  that  are  original  to  him, 
and  not  by  his  ability  to  repeat  well-known  facts.  (21 :  103) 

This  quotation  suggests  not  only  the  possibility  of  organiz- 
ing geometry  books  in  which  problem-solving  is  empha- 
sized, but  also  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  ordinary 
methods  of  teaching  the  subject  do  not  give  exercise  in 
reasoning,  but  simply  require  the  memorizing  of  a  series 
of  statements. 

Kind  of  mental  activity  determined  by  'method,  not  by  sub- 
ject matter.  —  These  facts  concerning  the  teaching  of  geom- 
etry suggest  the  general  principle  that  the  character  of  the 
subject  matter  does  not  necessarily  assure  a  certain  type  of 
mental  activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Often  it  is  the  method 
of  teaching  the  subject  matter  which  determines  the  type  of 
mental  activity.  The  same  point  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
teaching  of  natural  science,  which,  like  geometry,  has  ordi- 
narily been  supposed  to  train  in  reasoning.  The  distinction 
between  learning  the  body  of  scientific  subject  matter  and 
using  methods  of  scientific  reasoning  has  been  discussed  at 
length  by  Dewey  (13  :  121-127) an^  Karl  Pearson  (19  :  9-12). 
It  has  already  been  considered  in  this  book  in  connection 
with  the  distinction  between  the  logical  and  psychological 
methods  of  organizing  subject  matter.  (Review  page  91.) 

Summary  of  problem-solving  aspect  of  reflective  think- 
ing. —  This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  first  phase 
of  reflective  thinking,  namely,  problem-solving.  We  have 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  205 

considered  the  opportunities  for  problem-solving  which  occur 
in  various  subjects  ;  the  types  of  problems  with  which  persons 
are  confronted  in  ordinary  life ;  the  nature  of  the  process  of 
reflective  thinking  in  solving  problems ;  the  methods  which 
a  teacher  might  use  in  stimulating  and  assisting  pupils  in 
solving  problems ;  and  the  relative  value  of  independent 
reasoning  by  the  individual  pupil  as  compared  with  reason- 
ing as  a  member  of  a  group,  or  following  and  supplementing 
the  reasoning  of  the  teacher,  or  solving  a  series  of  problems 
outlined  in  a  book. 

In  the  next  section  of  the  chapter  we  shall  take  up  reflec- 
tive thinking  from  a  slightly  different  point  of  view,  namely, 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  part  played  in  reflective  thinking 
by  the  process  of  acquiring  clearly  defined  abstract  and 
general  meanings  or  ideas. 

SECTION  II.   ACQUIRING  ABSTRACT  AND  GENERAL 
MEANINGS 

Plays  a  large  part  in  high-school  instruction.  —  Closely 
related  to  the  first  phase  of  reflective  thinking  which  we  have 
been  considering,  namely,  problem-solving,  is  the  learning  of 
abstract  and  general  meanings.  This  process  plays  a  very 
large  part  in  high-school  instruction.  This  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  list  of  a  few  of  the  general  or  abstract  terms, 
the  meanings  of  which  are  learned  in  high  school  or  in  the 
upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school. 

In  linguistic  studies :  ablative,  accordance,  appositive,  con- 
cession, conditional  subjunctive,  diaeresis,  ellipsis,  genitive, 
gerund,  hyperbole,  metonymy,  moods,  pleonasm,  pluperfect 
tense,  vocatives. 

In  mathematics :  abscissa,  binomial,  conditional  equations, 
constants,  coordinates,  determinant,  exponents,  geometric 
progression,  indeterminate  equations,  logarithms,  mean  pro- 
portional, reciprocal,  surd. 


206  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

In  physics :  aberration,  acceleration,  adhesion,  capillarity, 
centrifugal,  conduction,  dialysis,  diathermous,  diatonic,  endos- 
mose,  index  of  refraction,  viscosity. 

In  botany :  absorption,  adaptation,  bacteria,  chloroplasts, 
chromosomes,  fertilization,  palisade  cells,  parthenogenesis, 
tropism,  xerophytes. 

Similarly,  in  chemistry,  economics,  psychology,  and  other 
subjects  there  are  hundreds  of  abstract  or  general  meanings 
which  must  be  learned  in  order  to  understand  the  discus- 
sions or  to  do  reflective  thinking  in  the  various  subjects. 

Examples  of  general  propositions  studied.  —  In  addition 
to  the  meanings  of  single  terms  there  are  many  abstract  and 
general  propositions,  statements,  rules,  or  laws  that  have  to 
be  studied,  understood,  and  learned.  Examples  of  these  are 
the  following : 

From  grammar:  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number.  In 
German  "  the  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  all  conditional  sentences 
when  the  supposition  is  contrary  to  fact,  and  it  occurs  in  both  the 
condition  and  the  conclusion." 

From  mathematics :  To  reduce  a  fraction  to  its  lowest  terms, 
divide  both  its  numerator  and  its  denominator  by  all  of  their 
common  factors  or  by  their  highest  common  factor. 

From  physics :  The  value  of  the  greatest  resistance  that  can  be 
overcome  with  a  combination  of  pulleys  is  obtained  by  multiplying 
together  the  effort  that  is  applied  and  the  number  of  cords  that 
support  the  movable  pulley. 

From  botany :  It  has  been  observed  that  the  chloroplasts  in 
these  palisade  cells  are  able  to  assume  various  positions  in  the 
cell,  so  that  when  the  light  is  very  intense,  they  move  to  the  more 
shaded  depths  of  the  cell,  and  when  it  becomes  less  intense,  they 
move  to  the  more  external  region  of  the  cell.  The  stomata,  or 
breathing  pores,  which  are  developed  in  the  epidermis,  are  also 
great  regulators  of  transpiration. 

Contrasting  methods  used  in  textbooks. — As  we  examine 
the  various  methods  of  teaching  abstract  or  general  meanings 
and  propositions  which  are  used  in  textbooks,  we  find  striking 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  207 

differences.  For  example,  contrast  the  two  following  quota- 
tions from  chemistries,  which  are  intended  to  teach  the  meaning 
of  chemical  change. 

The  matter  of  the  universe  is  constantly  changing.  Sometimes 
the  change  temporarily  modifies  the  special  properties  of  the  matter 
under  examination,  but  often  the  change  is  permanent  and  another 
substance  or  kind  of  matter  is  the  result.  When  the  properties  of 
a  given  portion  of  matter  are  so  changed  that  a  different  kind  of 
matter  is  formed,  then  the  change  is  called  a  chemical  change.  If 
the  properties  are  temporarily  changed,  then  the  substance  has 
undergone  a  physical  change.  (18:  15) 

The  second  example  of  methods  of  teaching  the  meaning 
of  chemical  change  reads  as  follows  : 

Introductory.  Those  things  which  are  most  familiar  to  us  are 
apt  to  be  regarded  with  least  wonder  and  to  occasion  the  least 
thought.  Take,  for  example,  the  changes  included  under  the  head 
of  fire.  Unless  we  have  studied  these  changes  with  care,  what  can 
we  make  of  them  ?  We  see  substances  destroyed  by  fire.  They 
apparently  disappear.  We  feel  the  heat  produced  by  the  burning. 
We  know  that  this  heat  disappears,  and  we  have  nothing  left  in 
the  place  of  the  substance  burned.  Take  as  another  example  the 
rusting  of  iron.  We  all  know  that  iron  when  exposed  to  moist  air 
undergoes  a  serious  change,  becoming  covered  with  a  reddish-brown 
substance  which  we  call  rust.  If  the  piece  of  iron  is  comparatively 
thin  and  it  is  allowed  to  lie  in  the  air  long  enough,  it  will  be  com- 
pletely changed  to  the  reddish-brown  substance  and  no  iron  as 
such  will  be  left.  If  a  spark  is  brought  in  contact  with  gunpowder, 
there  is  a  flash  and  the  powder  disappears,  dense  smoke  appearing 
in  its  place.  What  are  the  causes  of  these  remarkable  changes  ? 
Can  we  learn  anything  about  them  by  study  ? 

Chemical  changes.  In  those  changes  which  have  been  referred 
to,  the  substances  changed  disappear  as  such.  After  the  fire,  the 
wood  or  the  coal  or  whatever  may  have  been  burned  is  no  longer 
to  be  found.  The  gunpowder  after  the  flash  is  no  longer  gunpowder. 
The  rusted  iron  is  no  longer  iron,  and  no  matter  how  long  the  rust 
is  allowed  to  be  unmolested,  it  will  not  return  to  the  form  of  iron. 


208  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Iron  may,  further,  be  changed  by  contact  with  other  substances 
than  air  so  as  to  lose  its  properties.  Strong  vinegar,  which  contains 
the  substance  known  to  chemists  as  acetic  acid,  acts  upon  iron, 
causing  it  to  lose  its  characteristic  properties.  .  .  .  Changes  of 
this  kind,  in  which  the  substances  disappear  and  something  else 
is  formed  in  their  place,  are  known  as  chemical  changes.  .  .  . 

Physical  changes.  There  are  many  changes  taking  place  which 
do  not  affect  the  composition  of  substances.  Iron,  for  example, 
may  be  changed  in  many  ways  and  still  remain  iron.  It  may 
become  hotter  or  colder.  .  .  .  (20 :  1-2) 

Method  based  on  common  characteristics  of  familiar 
examples.  —  These  two  examples  quoted  above  furnish  us 
with  two  typical  methods  of  teaching  the  meaning  of  new 
abstract  or  general  terms.  The  first  quotation  is  itself  phrased 
entirely  in  general  terms  and  gives  no  familiar  examples. 
The  second  quotation,  on  the  other  hand,  (i)  begins  with 
familiar  examples,  (2)  uses  them  to  bring  out  a  common 
characteristic  (namely,  a  certain  type  of  change  in  substances), 
and  (3)  provides  at  the  end  of  the  process  the  technical  term 
chemical  changes  as  a  means  of  designating,  thinking  about, 
and  talking  about  the  characteristic  aspect  of  the  situation 
which  has  been  under  discussion. 

Example  of  exercises  to  test  grasp  of  meaning. — Another 
type  of  procedure  in  teaching  the  meaning  of  abstract  or 
general  terms  is  to  give  a  preliminary  discussion  consisting  of 
a  few  familiar  examples,  with  a  statement  of  the  definition, 
and  then  to  provide  a  number  of  exercises  in  thinking,  which 
are  expected  to  be  effective  in  making  the  meaning  clear. 
This  procedure  is  illustrated  by  the  following  quotation  from 
a  textbook  on  psychology,  although  no  definition  is  given 
in  this  case. 

I.  Mental  Facts 

The  world  is  made  up  of  physical  and  mental  facts.  On  the 
one  hand  there  are  solids,  liquids,  and  gases,  plants,  trees,  and 
bodies  of  animals,  the  stars  and  planets  and  their  movements,  the 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  209 

winds  and  the  clouds,  and  so  on  through  the  list  of  physical  things 
and  their  movements.  On  the  other  hand  are  the  thoughts  and 
feelings  of  men  and  of  other  animals :  ideas,  opinions,  memories, 
hopes,  fears,  pleasures,  pains,  smells,  tastes,  and  so  on  through 
the  list  of  states  of  mind.  .  .  .  Psychology,  the  science  of  mental 
facts  or  of  mind,  deals  with  the  latter. 

EXERCISE 

Which  of  the  following  words  refer  to  mental  facts  ?  Which 
refer  to  physical  facts  ?  Which  refer  sometimes  to  mental  and 
sometimes  to  physical  facts  ? 

Gas,  tree,  sympathy,  money,  desire,  wish,  dog,  stone,  dreams, 
headache,  inventiveness,  inch,  pound,  taste,  intelligence,  heavy, 
sour,  oxygen,  electricity,  fatigue,  pleasure,  loud,  observe,  remem- 
ber, image,  teeth.  (23 :  1-2) 

Example  of  students  being  assisted  and  required  to  dis- 
cover meanings.  —  Finally,  a  fourth  type  of  procedure  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  quotation  from  the  "  Outlines  of 
Economics"  (see  above,  p.  171),  in  which  the  student's 
attention  is  called  to  certain  familiar  examples  and  he  is 
then  required  to  work  out  the  answers  to  questions  in  order 
to  discover  the  meanings  for  the  terms  under  consideration. 

II.  Means  of  Satisfying  Wants 

Means  of  satisfying  wants  are  called  goods.  Goods,  which  may 
be  material  or  nonmaterial,  are  characterized  by  the  quality  of 
utility  —  the  capacity  to  satisfy  wants. 

The  following  diagram  suggests  a  descriptive  classification  of 

goods :  ,  ,  Material  (wealth) 

Economic  goods  (have  utility,  J 

are  scarce  and  appropriable)  1  - 
Means  of  satis-  ^Nonmaterial  (services) 

fying     wants  •{ 

—  goods  f  material  "1  The     economist     does 

Free  goods  ,  . 

...     ,<  >     not  concern   himself 


'  [nonmaterial      )      with  these 


210  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Does  every  good  possess  utility  ?    Is  everything  which  pos- 
sesses utility  a  good  ? 

2.  Have  the  following  utility :   whisky,  a  gambler's  pack  of 
cards,  clothes  of  an  obsolete  fashion,  opium,  grand  opera,  air  ? 

3.  Which  has  the  greater  utility,  a  diamond  or  a  barrel  of 
flour?  the  rare  first  edition  of  an  old  book  or  a  modern  copy, 
better  printed  and  better  bound  ?   Why  ? 

4.  Are  the  following  appropriable :  (a)  a  loaf  of  bread ;  (£)  a 
coal  mine;  (c)  sunshine;  (d)  the  Mississippi  River;  (e)  a  public 
park  ;  (_/)  a  band  concert  ?   What  is  meant  by  appropriable  ? 

5.  Give  examples  of  nonmaterial  economic  goods,  of  non- 
material  free  goods,  and  of  material  free  goods. 

6.  Should  the  economist  be  as  much  concerned  with  non- 
material  as  with  material  economic  goods  ?   Can  we  say  that  one 
class  is  more  important  than  the  other? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  things  which  are  clearly  wealth. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  things  which  are  clearly  not  wealth. 

9.  Make  a  list  of  things  concerning  which  you  are  in  doubt 
as  to  whether  they  are  wealth. 

10.  Define  wealth. 

1 1 .  Are  the  following  wealth  :  an  ocean  steamship  ;  a  pleasure 
yacht ;  a  ship  on  the  bottom  of  the  ocean ;  gold  in  the  mine ;  gold 
to  a  shipwrecked  sailor  on  a  desert  island  ;  a  wooden  leg ;  health  ; 
eyesight ;  a  waterfall ;  a  head  full  of  useful  knowledge  ;  water  ? 

1 2.  "A  thing  may  be  wealth  though  it  is  not  useful  — for  example, 
an  Indian  arrowhead."    Comment. 

13.  Is  an  encyclopedia  wealth?   among  Indians? 

14.  Could  a  thing  that  was  wealth  at  one  time  cease  to  be 
wealth  at  some  other  time  ?    Could  the  reverse  be  true  ?   Why  ? 

15.  If  a  coat  should  go  out  of  style,  would  it  still  be  wealth  ? 

1 6.  What  distinguishes  wealth  from  services  ? 

17.  Should  we  consider  services  which  have  a  tangible  result 
more  important  than  those  which  do  not?   Give  several  illustra- 
tions of  each  kind. 

1 8.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  economist,  could  you  accept 
as  a  definition  of  wealth  (a)  means  of  satisfying  wants ;  (£)  things 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  211 

which  make  for  welfare ;  (c)  material  means  of  satisfying  wants ; 
(d)  material  things  upon  which  labor  has  been  expended  ? 

19.  Are  the  following  wealth :  a  courthouse ;  a  warship  ;  a  city 
hall ;  a  public  library  ? 

20.  How  do  you  distinguish  between  social  wealth  and  private 
wealth  ?    Does  social  wealth  include  more  than  private  wealth  ? 

2 1 .  When  a  United  States  gold  certificate  is  destroyed,  is  wealth 
destroyed  ? 

22.  Is  a  railroad  bond  wealth  ?   Is  a  patented  invention  ?  a  fire- 
insurance  policy  ? 

23.  Suppose  a  new  source  of  mechanical  power  should  become 
available  at  one  fourth  the  cost  of  steam  power.    What  would  be 
the  effect  on  wealth  in  general  ?   Would  any  individuals  be  made 
less  wealthy  by  the  new  discovery  ? 

24.  If  wealth  increases,  will  there  be  greater  well-being?   What 
is  the  relation  of  wealth  to  well-being  ? 

25.  "  To  be  wealth  a  thing  must  be  scarce."   Is  that  equivalent 
to  saying  that  the  less  we  have  of  things,  the  better  off  we  are  ? 
What  do  you  mean  by  scarce"! 

26.  Is  a  man's  wealth  measured  by  the  number  or  bulk  or 
weight  of  his  possessions  or  by  their  money  value  ?    Is  a  scarce 
article  likely  to  command  a  higher  price  than  one  that  is  common  ? 
Does  this  imply  that  wealth  is  increased  by  scarcity  of  goods  ? 

27.  Should  you  accept  as  true  the  statement  that  the  scarcity 
of  certain  desirable  articles,  such  as  jewels,  may  enhance  the  com- 
parative wealth  of  an  individual,  but  that  general  welfare  is  pro- 
moted by  abundance  of  the  commodities  which  people  desire? 
Why?    (17:  4-6) 

An  excellent  opportunity  for  comparing  three  lessons  of 
different  types  on  the  same  topic  is  afforded  in  Thorndike's 
"Principles  of  Teaching"  (pp.  167-170).  The  topic  is 
Tense  in  grammar,  (i)  The  first  lesson  merely  gives  the 
definitions,  with  few  examples,  and  at  the  end  provides  a  list 
of  questions.  The  answers  to  these  are  the  statements  in  the 
paragraph  that  has  preceded  them,  in  exactly  the  same  order. 
Such  a  lesson  merely  provides  for  the  verbatim  learning  of 
general  statements  that  are  not  understood.  (2)  The  second 


212  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

lesson  gives  examples  first,  then  the  names  of  the  various 
tenses  and  some  abstract  discussion  of  inaccuracies  in  using 
some  of  the  technical  terms,  such  as  present  tense.  (3)  The 
third  lesson  begins  with  familiar  examples  and  sets  questions 
which  require  the  student  to  discover  the  various  ways  in 
which  verbs  may  be  used  to  indicate  differences  in  time.  It 
then  gives  the  technical  terms  to  designate  the  different 
tenses  and  provides  practice  in  picking  out  and  using  verbs 
in  different  tenses. 

General  questions  concerning  best  method  to  use.  —  All  of 
these  examples  of  methods  which  we  find  used  in  the  text- 
books to  teach  abstract  and  general  meanings  and  propositions 
suggest  the  following  questions  for  consideration  in  connec- 
tion with  this  type  of  learning  : 

1 .  What  is  the  value  of  familiar  examples  or  illustrations  ? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  analytical  discussion  by  the  teacher 
versus  analytical  study  and  discovery  by  the  pupils  ? 

3.  What  is  the  value  of  a  definition?    Is  it  necessary? 
Should  it  come  before  or  after  the  meaning  has  been  ac- 
quired ?    Should  it  be  phrased  in  technical  language  or  in 
ordinary  language  ? 

4.  Of  what  value  are  exercises  which  test  the  student's 
understanding  of  the  new  abstract  meaning  and  his  ability 
to  recognize  and  use  the  same  in  new  situations  ? 

Untutored  method  of  learning  may  contain  suggestions.  — 
A  brief  discussion  of  the  way  in  which  general  meanings  or 
abstractions  are  acquired  in  ordinary  life  may  throw  some 
light  on  the  best  procedure  to  be  followed  in  teaching.  I  say 
-may  because  the  best  or  most  economical  and  effective  proc- 
ess of  learning  under  instruction  might  differ  very  greatly 
from  the  natural,  untutored  process. 

Abstracting-  is  a  process  of  selecting  a  single  aspect  for 
separate  attention.  —  For  our  purposes  the  process  of  ab- 
straction or  abstracting  may  be  thought  of  as  getting  ac- 
quainted with  some  aspect  of  a  situation  apart  from  its  other 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  213 

aspects.  The  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  chemical  changes 
given  above  would  serve  as  one  example.  In  that  discussion 
the  attention  was  directed  to  one  phase  of  various  situations 
(iron  rusting,  powder  exploding,  etc.),  namely,  the  phase 
"  change  of  substance."  This  phase  may  be  spoken  of  as  the 
abstracted  element.  The  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term  to 
abstract,  namely,  "to  withdraw,"  "to separate,"  "to  take 
away,"  suggests  the  character  of  the  psychological  process. 
The  abstracted  element  is  also  spoken  of  as  general  because 
it  is  (or  similar  manifestations  are)  found  in  many  situations 
or  because  knowledge  of  it  may  be  used  in  various  situations. 
Thus,  chemical  change  may  be  an  abstracted  aspect  of  one 
situation  or  of  many  situations. 

Learning  the  bacterial  aspects  of  water  is  an  example.  — 
As  an  example  of  learning  a  new  abstraction  in  ordinary  life 
we  may  imagine  a  party  of  canoeists  who  are  choosing  a 
camping  site  in  a  country  where  there  are  a  number  of  mining 
camps,  and  are  considering  whether  water  from  a  certain 
brook  is  fit  to  drink.  Various  characteristics  of  the  water 
may  be  taken  up  in  turn  for  consideration.  Each  of  these 
may  be  considered  as  an  abstracted  element.  One  person 
might  focus  his  attention  on  pieces  of  bark  or  leaves  floating 
in  the  water  and  say  it  was  unfit  on  that  account.  Another 
might  select  its  murkiness  as  the  aspect  for  emphasis.  An- 
other might  emphasize  its  coolness.  A  sanitary  engineer 
might  disregard  all  of  these  and  say  that  the  only  aspect 
of  importance  is  whether  the  water  contains  germs  of 
disease,  and  hold  that  the  thing  to  do  is  to  trace  it  to  its 
source  or  to  examine  the  possibility  of  the  watershed  being 
contaminated. 

For  some  member  of  the  party  the  idea  "  germ  aspect  of 
water  "  may  be  a  new  abstraction  —  one  that  has  never  been 
brought  to  his  attention  before.  Perhaps  he  has  never  heard 
before  of  germs  or  of  the  part  played  by  them  in  disease.  In 
this  case  we  have  the  beginning  of  the  process  of  learning  a 


214  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

new  abstraction.  If  he  is  not  particularly  inquisitive,  he  may 
not  ask  any  questions,  and  his  notion  of  the  abstracted  ele- 
ment "  disease  germs  "  remain  simply  "  what  the  sanitary 
engineer  said  about  that  brook  water."  Later  in  his  life 
another  reference  to  disease  germs  may  be  experienced ; 
perhaps  he  will  read  in  a  sign  in  the  street  cars  that  "  spit- 
ting is  dangerous  ;  it  spreads  disease  germs."  He  may  then 
recall  the  statement  about  the  brook  water  and  have  now  a 
conception  of  "  germs  in  brook  water  and  spread  by  spitting 

—  dangerous."    Gradually,  as  he  has  more  experiences,  he 
may  get  a  fairly  good  conception  of  disease  germs,  from  the 
standpoint  of  practical  behavior,  as  "  things  to  be  avoided." 
He  may  have,  however,  no  acquaintance  with  them  as  exist- 
ing separately ;  they  are  simply  abstract  aspects  of  various 
situations,  such  as  drinking  water,  sputum,  milk,  tuberculosis, 
etc.   They  are  simply  aspects  that  he  has  heard  talked  about ; 
he  has  no  clear  notion  of  them  as  objects ;  he  does  n't  know 
what  they  look   like,  how   they  live,   how  they  grow  and 
subdivide,  whether  they  are  plants  or  animals  or  minerals ; 
yet  for  practical  purposes  he  may  have  a  fairly  adequate 
conception  of  them. 

School  expedites  process  and  stresses  technical  meanings. 

—  The  above  description  is  typical  of  the  way  in  which  we 
acquire  many  of  our  abstractions,  or  general  notions  in  daily 
life.    When  we  come  to  consider  the  acquisition  of  these  ab- 
stractions in  school,  however,  we  are  met  by  two  differences  : 
(i)  It  is  desirable  to  shorten  the  time  for  learning  the  abstrac- 
tion ;  hence  experiences  containing  the  aspect  in  question  are 
usually  presented  in  fairly  rapid  succession.  (2)  Most  teachers 
think  that  it  is  important  to  proceed  at  once  to  teach  the  con- 
ception of  the  abstracted  aspect  that  the  scientist  has  who 
specializes  in  the  related  field. 

May  expedite  by  intensive  study  of  a  few  typical  examples. 

-  The  expediting  of  the  process  of  learning  abstractions,  by 

seeing  that  the  student  gets,  in  a  brief,  condensed  period  of 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  215 

time,  experiences  which  would  otherwise  be  scattered  over  a 
long  period,  is  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  school.  It 
has  led,  however,  to  the  danger  of  assuming  that  the  all- 
important  thing  is  the  providing  of  a  large  number  of  experi- 
ences or  examples,  from  which  it  is  expected  that  the  student 
will  derive  an  adequate  conception  of  the  abstracted  element. 
It  is  probably  more  effective  to  increase  and  then  condense 
the  experiences  by  providing  for  an  intensive  study  of  a  few 
cases,  with  their  manifold  relationships  and  ramifications, 
than  to  spend  the  same  amount  of  time  on  the  superficial 
study  of  a  large  number  of  cases. 

To  continue  to  use  the  example  about  the  party  of  canoe- 
ists and  the  disease  germs  in  the  brook  water,  if  the  sanitary 
engineer  desired  to  give  the  other  members  of  the  party  a 
better  notion  of  germs,  or  bacteria,  he  might  pursue  the 
matter  as  follows  :  Suggesting  that  mining  camps  are  located 
on  some  of  the  brooks  but  not  on  others,  he  might  lead  them 
to  explore  the  watershed  to  determine  which  brooks  were 
probably  safe  and  which  were  not.  He  might  then  take 
samples  of  water  from  a  safe  brook  and  an  unsafe  one  and 
ask  members  of  the  party  to  call  at  his  office  next  day  to 
look  at  them  under  the  microscope.  He  might  then  succeed 
in  demonstrating  the  presence  of  the  colon  bacillus  as  a  sign 
of  the  presence  of  human  excreta  in  the  unsafe  water.  From 
experience  he  could  cite  examples  of  epidemics  clearly  due 
to  contaminated  water  supply,  and  could  show,  by  means  of 
data  concerning  decreased  typhoid  rate,  the  beneficial  results 
of  installing  city  systems  to  provide  filtered,  or  pure,  water. 
Then  other  phases  of  camping  which  involve  bacteria  could 
be  brought  in,  such  as  the  use  of  canned  milk,  the  effects  of 
flies,  the  necessity  of  disposing  of  the  garbage,  the  care  of 
wounds.  Thus,  always  taking  as  his  point  of  departure  some 
familiar,  real,  and  typical  situation,  it  would  be  possible  to 
bring  about  a  fair  understanding  of  the  practical  aspects  of 
bacteriology  in  relation  to  health. 


216  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Psychological  justification  of  the  type  method.  —  The  psy- 
chological principles  at  the  basis  of  this  intensive  study  of 
typical  cases  are  presented  by  Dewey  as  follows : 

In  the  process  of  comparison  the  teacher  must  avert  the  dis- 
traction that  ensues  from  putting  before  the  mind  a  number  of 
facts  on  the  same  level  of  importance.  Since  attention  is  selective, 
some  one  object  normally  claims  thought  and  furnishes  the  center 
of  departure  and  reference.  This  fact  is  fatal  to  the  success  of 
the  pedagogical  methods  that  endeavor  to  conduct  comparison  on 
the  basis  of  putting  before  the  mind  a  row  of  objects  of  equal 
importance.  In  comparing,  the  mind  does  not  naturally  begin 
with  objects  a,  b,  c,  d,  and  try  to  find  the  respect  in  which  they 
agree.  It  begins  with  a  single  object  or  situation  more  or  less 
vague  and  inchoate  in  meaning,  and  makes  excursions  to  other 
objects  in  order  to  render  understanding  of  the  central  object  con- 
sistent and  clear.  The  mere  multiplication  of  objects  of  compari- 
son is  adverse  to  successful  reasoning.  Each  fact  brought  within 
the  field  of  comparison  should  clear  up  some  obscure  feature  or 
extend  some  fragmentary  trait  of  the  primary  object. 

In  short,  pains  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  object  on  which 
thought  centers  is  typical ';  material  being  typical  when,  although 
individual  or  specific,  it  is  such  as  readily  and  fruitfully  suggests 
the  principles  of  an  entire  class  of  facts.  No  sane  person  begins 
to  think  about  rivers  wholesale  or  at  large.  He  begins  with  one 
river  that  has  presented  some  puzzling  trait.  Then  he  studies  other 
rivers  to  get  light  upon  the  baffling  feature  of  this  one,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  employs  the  characteristic  traits  of  his  original  object 
to  reduce  to  order  the  multifarious  details  that  appear  in  connection 
with  other  rivers.  This  working  back  and  forth  preserves  unity  of 
meaning  while  protecting  from  monotony  and  narrowness.  Con- 
trast, unlikeness,  throws  significant  features  into  relief,  and  these  be- 
come instruments  for  binding  together  into  an  organized  or  coherent 
meaning  dissimilar  characters.  The  mind  is  defended  against  the 
deadening  influence  of  many  isolated  particulars  and  also  against 
the  barrenness  of  a  merely  formal  principle.  Particular  cases  and 
properties  supply  emphasis  and  concreteness ;  general  principles 
convert  the  particulars  into  a  single  system.  (5:  210—211) 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  217 

Examples  of  the  type  method  with  exceptions.  —  Practical 
examples  of  the  type  method  advocated  in  this  quotation 
have  already  been  described  in  connection  with  the  selection 
of  subject  matter.  (Review  pages  74-78  above.)  The  exam- 
ples of  general  meanings  cited  there  ("  Italian  humanist," 
"  irrigation  projects,"  and  type  forms  in  zoology  and  botany) 
are  all  cases  where  new  experiences  need  to  be  provided  in 
considerable  quantity ;  hence  the  type  method  is  especially 
effective.  In  some  cases,  however,  such  as  the  meaning  of 
chemical  changes,  where  the  student  already  has  a  wealth 
of  experiences  upon  which  to  draw  and  the  element  in  ques- 
tion can  be  abstracted  very  quickly  in  each  case,  the  teacher 
would  be  justified  in  presenting  a  number  of  examples  in 
rapid  succession,  instead  of  presenting  one  typical  example 
at  great  length. 

1.  Particular  personal  experiences  a  necessary  basis  for 
abstractions.1  —  To  return  now  to  the  four  questions  of 
method  raised  on  page  212,  we  may  note  first  the  necessity 
of  particular  personal  experiences  as  the  basis  of  learning 
general  or  abstract  meanings.  In  discussing  this  point, 
Dewey  says  : 

A  blind  man  can  never  have  an  adequate  understanding  of  the 
meaning  of  color and  red;  a  seeing  person  can  acquire  the  knowledge 
only  by  having  certain  things  designated  in  such  a  way  as  to  fix 


1  The  phrase  "  proceeding  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract  "  is  often 
used  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  learning  abstractions,  but  unfor- 
tunately its  meanings  remain  so  various,  even  after  it  has  been  carefully 
studied,  that  it  is  probably  advisable  not  to  use  it  at  all.  It  is  often  used 
as  synonymous  with  "  proceeding  from  the  particular  to  the  general."  But 
Dewey  points  out  that  unless  the  particular  is  familiar  it  may  not  be 
concrete,  and  that  general  terms,  such  as  atom  or  molecule,  which  are 
very  familiar  to  a  physicist,  are  concrete  for  him.  Dewey  presents  other 
refinements  of  the  meanings  of  concrete  and  abstract  which  are  so  puzzling 
as  to  justify  us  in  leaving  out  the  word  concrete  altogether  as  the  opposite 
of  abstract,  and*  saying  particular  fact  when  that  is  what  we  mean,famt/iar 
fact  when  that  is  what  we  mean,  etc.  (See  5 :  135-144) 


218  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

attention  upon  some  of  their  qualities.  This  method  of  delimit- 
ing a  meaning  by  calling  out  a  certain  attitude  toward  objects  [the 
attitude  of  disregard  for  some  qualities  and  selection  of  others] 
may  be  called  denotative  or  indicative.  It  is  required  for  all  sense 
qualities  —  sounds,  tastes,  colors  —  and  equally  for  all  emotional 
and  moral  qualities.  The  meanings  of  honesty,  sympathy,  hatred, 
fear,  must  be  grasped  by  having  them  presented  in  an  individual's 
first-hand  experience.  .  .  .  However  advanced  the  person  is  in 
knowledge  or  scientific  training,  understanding  of  a  new  subject  or 
a  new  aspect  of  an  old  subject  must  always  be  through  these  acts 
of  experiencing  directly  the  existence  or  quality  in  question.  (5 :  132) 

Advanced  teachers  fail  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of  par- 
tictdars.  —  The  danger  of  advanced  teachers  overlooking  this 
necessity  of  detailed  personal  experience,  together  with  the 
psychological  explanation  of  the  fact,  is  brought  out  by  James 
in  the  following  quotation  : 

As  the  art  of  reading  (after  a  certain  stage  in  one's  education) 
is  the  art  of  skipping,  so  the  art  of  being  wise  is  the  art  of  knowing 
what  to  overlook.  The  first  effect,  on  the  mind,  of  growing  culti- 
vated is  that  processes  once  multiple  get  to  be  performed  by  a 
single  act.  Lazarus  has  called  this  the  progressive  condensation 
of  thought.  But  in  the  psychological  sense  it  is  less  a  condensation 
than  a  loss,  a  genuine  dropping  out  and  throwing  overboard  of 
conscious  content.  Steps  really  sink  from  sight.  An  advanced 
thinker  sees  the  relations  of  his  topics  in  such  masses  and  so  in- 
stantaneously that  when  he  comes  to  explain  to  younger  minds,  it 
is  often  hard  to  say  which  grows  the  more  perplexed,  he  or  the 
pupil.  In  every  university  there  are  admirable  investigators  who 
are  notoriously  bad  lecturers.  [One]  reason  is  that  they  never 
spontaneously  see  the  subject  in  the  minute,  articulate  way  in 
which  the  student  needs  to  have  it  offered  to  his  slow  reception. 
They  grope  for  the  links,  but  the  links  do  not  come.  Bowditch, 
who  translated  and  annotated  Laplace's  "  Mechanique  Celeste,"  said 
that  whenever  his  author  prefaced  a  proposition  by  the  words  "  it 
is  evident,"  he  knew  that  many  hours  of  hard  study  lay  before 
him.  (6  Vol.  II :  369-370) 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  219 

Expository  teaching  based  on  previous  real  experiences.  — 
After  individuals  have  accumulated  a  stock  of  real,  personal 
experiences,  it  is  often  possible  to  build  up  new  meanings 
from  these  in  an  indirect  or  expository  way.  Dewey  describes 
this  method  as  follows : 

Given  a  certain  store  of  meanings  which  have  been  directly  or 
denotatively  marked  out,  language  becomes  a  resource  by  which 
imaginative  combinations  and  variations  may  be  built  up.  A  color 
may  be  denned,  to  one  who  has  not  experienced  it,  as  lying  between 
green  and  blue ;  a  tiger  may  be  denned  (that  is,  the  idea  of  it  made 
more  definite)  by  selecting  some  qualities  from  known  members  of 
the  cat  tribe  and  combining  them  with  qualities  of  size  and  weight 
derived  from  other  objects.  Illustrations  are  of  the  nature  of  [such] 
expository  definitions ;  so  are  the  accounts  of  meanings  given  in  a 
dictionary.  By  taking  better-known  meanings  and  associating  them, 
the  attained  store  of  meanings  of  the  community  in  which  one 
resides  is  put  at  one's  disposal.  But  in  themselves  these  definitions 
are  second-hand  and  conventional ;  there  is  danger  that,  instead  of 
inciting  one  to  effort  after  personal  experiences  that  will  exemplify 
and  verify  them,  they  will  be  accepted  on  authority  as  substitutes. 
(5:  132) 

Recalled  real  experiences  sometimes  more  useful  than  new 
experiences.  —  The  danger  which  Dewey  mentions  in  the 
last  sentence  should  not  blind  us  to  the  large  possibilities 
which  lie  in  this  indirect  or  expository  method  of  teaching 
new  abstract  or  general  meanings.  It  possesses  enormous 
possibilities  in  many  subjects  and  is  illustrated  in  the  example 
of  teaching  the  meaning  of  chemical  changes  and  physical 
changes  described  above.  In  this  case  most  students  already 
possess  a  thoroughly  adequate  store  of  real  experiences.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  revive  these  in  imagination  and  examine 
them  from  a  new  point  of  view.  Many  teachers,  in  their  reac- 
tion against  the  teaching  of  mere  words  that  are  not  under- 
stood, have  gone  to  the  extreme  of  providing  laboratory  work, 
pictures,  excursions,  etc.  in  cases  where  they  are  not  necessary. 


220  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  meaning  which  is  to  be  taught  could  often  be  reached 
more  economically  and  by  more  real  reflective  thought  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil  by  recall  and  reconstruction  of  familiar  ex- 
periences. This  process  possesses  the  additional  advantage  of 
keeping  the  meaning  related  to  the  everyday  affairs  instead 
of  connecting  it  merely  with  artificially  produced  laboratory 
conditions.  Students  very  often  fail  to  appreciate  the  fact 
that  the  general  and  abstract  meanings  acquired  in  labora- 
tory courses  are  exampled  in  daily  life. 

2.  Active  discovery  and  expression  necessary  for  poor  stu- 
dents. —  The  account  since  page  217  has  concerned  largely 
the  extent  to  which  real  experiences  are  necessary  as  a  basis 
of  acquiring  an  adequate  understanding  of  abstract  and  general 
meanings.    The  second  problem  noted  on  page  212  concerned 
the  relative  merits  of  analytical  discussion  by  the  teacher  and 
analytical  thought  by  the  pupils.    Practically  the  same  distinc- 
tions apply  here  as  were  stated  on  pages  202-203  in  connec- 
tion with  problem-solving.   The  superior  student  will  probably 
get  the  meaning  adequately  by  following  the  discussion  by  the 
teacher  or  in  the  textbook,  provided  this  is  properly  related 
to  particular  and  familiar  experiences.    The  poor  student  will 
need  to  have  opportunities  to  analyze,  to  discover,  to  express 
himself,  and  to  be  corrected. 

3.  Exact  definitions.  Not  necessary  in  all  thinking.  —  The 
third  problem  raised  on  page  212  concerns  the  place  and 
value  of  an  exact  definition  of  an  abstract  or  general  term  in 
learning  its  meaning.    The  first  point  to  notice  in  this  con- 
nection is  that  a  person  may  have  a  very  usable  meaning 
for  a  term  and  not  be  able  to  define  it  in  exact  language. 
Thus,  Welton  says : 

It  is  ...  clear  that  inability  to  give  a  precise  definition  is  by  no 
means  a  sign  of  inability  to  think  and  speak  correctly  and  intelli- 
gently of  the  matter  in  hand,  so  far  as  we  require  to  do  so  in  ordi- 
nary life.  Many  people  are  surprised  to  find  they  cannot  give  an 
accurate  definition  of  such  common  terms  as  table  or  cow  if  they 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  22 1 

are  called  upon  to  do  so.  It  does  not  follow  that  they  know  nothing 
about  tables  and  cows.  They  may  even  be  carpenters  or  graziers 
and  so  know  a  great  deal  about  them,  and  yet  be  unable  to  define 
their  names,  though  they  could  give  a  more  or  less  full  and  accurate 
description  of  the  things  to  which  the  name  applies.  (8 :  228) 

An  example  of  this  fact  is  the  meaning  of  bacteria.  In 
the  incident  described  above  on  page  213  the  canoeist  was 
supposed  to  acquire  the  same  practical  conception  of  bacteria 
that  a  large  part  of  the  general  public  has  at  the  present  time. 
Yet  in  neither  case  is  the  scientific  definition  known.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  definition  which  is  given  below  would 
contribute  very  much  to  the  practical  value  of  their  conception. 

Bacterium.  A  microscopic  vegetable  organism,  belonging  to  the 
class  Algae,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  jointed  rodlike  filament, 
and  found  in  putrefying  organic  infusions.  Bacteria  are  destitute 
of  chlorophyll  and  are  the  smallest  of  microscopic  organisms. 

Further  examples  are  given  by  Welton,  who  says  : 

Similarly,  a  child  would  probably  not  receive  much  assistance 
in  understanding  what  network  is  from  the  definition  given  by 
Dr.  Johnson :  "  anything  reticulated  or  decussated  at  equal  inter- 
vals, with  interstices  at  the  intersections."  Such  examples  make 
it  clear  that  a  pedantic  insistence  on  definition  may  do  much  to 
hinder  the  comprehension  of  meaning. .  .  .  To  see  a  net  and  think 
out  its  purpose  gives  more  content  to  the  idea  than  to  learn  not 
only  such  a  definition  as  that  of  Dr.  Johnson  but  any  definition 
that  could  in  all  probability  be  framed.  (8  :  233) 

Exact  definitions  necessary  in  using  technical  terms.  — 
Keeping  in  mind  these  preliminary  cautions  concerning  the 
overemphasis  on  definitions,  let  us  consider  briefly  the  neces- 
sity and  value  of  exact  definitions  in  some  cases.  The  dis- 
cussion of  the  meaning  of  the  word  concrete,  given  above  on 
page  217,  furnishes  a  good  example.  For  ordinary  discourse 
the  vague  meaning  of  this  term  which  is  current  is  sufficient. 
When  we  come  to  a  scientific  issue,  however,  such  as  the 


222  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

pedagogical  principle  of  proceeding  from  the  concrete  to  the 
abstract,  it  is  evident  that  a  much  more  exact  defining  of 
the  term  is  necessary.  Similarly  with  many  other  pedagogi- 
cal formulae.  "  Development  of  faculties  "  is  one  of  these. 
This  phrase  is  used  in  four  different  senses  in  pedagogical 
discussions  :  namely,  as  meaning  (i)  the  appearing  of  an 
instinct  or  capacity,  such  as  the  instinct  to  walk ;  (2)  the 
natural  maturing  or  inner  growth  of  an  instinct  or  capacity, 
such  as  the  change  in  a  boy's  voice  at  adolescence ;  (3)  the 
training  of  a  special  capacity,  such  as  multiplication  in  mathe- 
matics ;  (4)  the  training  of  some  general  capacity  or  power, 
such  as  the  judgment  or  the  memory.  When  one  reads  that 
"  the  aim  of  education  is  the  development  of  faculties  "  he 
cannot  be  sure  which  of  these  meanings  of  development  is 
intended.  The  term  appreciation  furnishes  another  example. 
In  pedagogical  discussions  this  term  is  used  vaguely  and  often 
indiscriminately  to  designate  both  (esthetic  enjoyment  and 
logical  understanding  —  two  processes  which  are  very  differ- 
ent. Yet  it  is  often  impossible  to  tell  from  the  context  in  a 
given  case  which  meaning  the  author  has  in  mind.  Concern- 
ing such  a  situation  Dewey  says  : 

A  constant  source  of  misunderstanding  and  mistake  is  indefinite- 
ness  of  meaning.  Through  vagueness  of  meaning  we  misunderstand 
other  people,  things,  and  ourselves ;  through  its  ambiguity  we  dis- 
tort and  pervert.  .  .  .  Vagueness  disguises  the  unconscious  mixing 
together  of  different  meanings,  and  facilitates  the  substitution  of 
one  meaning  for  another,  and  covers  up  the  failure  to  have  any 
precise  meaning  at  all.  It  is  the  aboriginal  logical  sin  —  the  source 
from  which  flow  most  bad  intellectual  consequences.  (5  :  129-130) 

Technical  meanings  secured  by  arbitrary  restriction.  —  It 
is  in  the  study  of  such  subjects  as  grammar,  mathematics, 
physics,  chemistry,  biology,  economics,  psychology,  law,  etc. 
that  the  exact  definition  of  terms  as  they  will  be  used  in  each 
specialized  field  is  especially  important.  Within  each  subject, 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  223 

more  or  less  arbitrary  restrictions  are  placed  upon  the  mean- 
ings of  the  technical  terms  used,  in  order  that  they  may  always 
have  the  same  significance.  The  following  terms  illustrate  the 
contrast  between  the  loose,  inclusive  meaning  of  a  given  term 
in  ordinary  conversation  and  the  restricted  meaning  of  the 
same  term  in  a  given  science :  In  geometry :  line,  surface, 
square,  circle.  In  psychology:  sensation,  feeling.  In  eco- 
nomics: wealth.  In  physics :  work,  sound,  heat,  tempera- 
ture, mass.  In  order  that  the  student  may  think  clearly  and 
progress  surely  in  these  subjects,  it  is  almost  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  he  learn  the  exact  definitions  of  these  words.  Thus, 
instead  of  confusing  mass  with  volume  he  must  learn  that 
"  mass  means  the  quantity  of  matter  that  a  body  contains." 
In  psychology,  instead  of  using  sensation  vaguely  for  almost 
any  kind  of  experience,  he  must  confine  it  to  "  consciousness  of 
qualities  or  conditions  either  of  things  or  of  one's  own  body." 
Clearness  and  precision  are  attributes  of  good  definitions. 
—  In  formulating  a  definition  it  is  important  to  phrase  it  in 
such  language  that  it  can  be  easily  understood  and  at  the 
same  time  be  precise  or  true  to  the  facts.  That  is,  clearness 
and  precision  are  two  of  the  most  important  qualities  of  good 
definitions.  A  good  example  of  lack  of  clearness  is  the  defi- 
nition of  network,  quoted  above  on  page  221.  It  is  often  dif- 
ficult to  secure  a  definition  that  is  clear  and  at  the  same  time 
precise.  For  example,  consider  the  following  definition :  "  To 
multiply  one  number,  called  the  multiplicand,  by  another, 
called  the  multiplier,  is  to  use  the  multiplicand  as  we  must 
use  unity  to  obtain  the  multiplier."  This  definition  may  be 
precise,  but  its  meaning  must  be  puzzled  out  by  the  high- 
school  pupils.  In  reaching  this  definition  the  author  of  the 
algebra  from  which  it  is  quoted  criticizes  the  ordinary  simpler 
definition  in  the  following  words  : 

Multiplication  has  been  denned  in  arithmetic  as  the  process  of 
taking  one  number,  called  the  multiplicand,  as  many  times  as  there 
are  units  in  the  other,  called  the  multiplier.  It  is  evident  that  this 


224  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

definition  holds  only  when  the  multiplier  is  a  whole  number,  and 
fails  when  it  is  a  fraction. 

Thus,  to  multiply  7  by  2\  would  mean  to  take  7  as  many  times 
as  there  are  units  in  2^,  that  is,  2^  times.  This  is  impossible.  One 
cannot  do  a  thing  2^-  times.  (22  :  3) 

Get  the  meaning  first,  then  add  the  symbol.  —  One  further 
point  in  connection  with  definitions  remains  to  be  noted.  This 
is  the  possibility  of  reversing  the  usual  form  of  statement  and 
giving  the  meaning,  or  a  meaning,  first  and  adding  the  term 
at  the  end.  To  take  an  example  that  is  easily  understood, 
consider  the  first  teaching  about  nouns  in  the  elementary 
school.  At  first  only  names  of  common  objects  are  taken  up. 
The  children  get  an  idea  of  this  class  of  words,  that  is,  names 
of  objects.  The  teacher  now  wishes  to  introduce  the  tech- 
nical term  noun,  in  order  to  have  a  symbol  for  talking 
about  this  class  of  words  and  to  help  the  children  in  thinking 
about  it  as  a  class.  She  ordinarily  does  this  by  giving  the 
definition  in  this  form  :  "  Nouns  are  names  of  things."  But 
this  is  objectionable,  since  the  statement  is  not  precise  or  true. 
The  difficulty  would  be  obviated,  however,  if  she  began  with 
a  statement  of  the  general  meaning  which  the  children 
have  acquired,  that  is,  "  names  of  things,"  and  then  added 
the  new  symbol  nouns.  The  statement  would  then  stand 
"  Names  of  things  are  nouns."  In  this  form  it  is  simple  ;  it 
represents  adequately  the  meaning  which  the  children  have 
acquired ;  it  is  true  ;  and  it  can  be  expanded  to  include  other 
kinds  of  nouns  as  these  are  learned.  Unfortunately  the  form 
of  statement  which  we  find  in  a  dictionary  has  influenced  our 
practice  so  much  that  in  many  simple  cases  teachers  will 
struggle  to  construct  a  complete  definition,  which  is  necessary 
when  the  term  to  be  defined  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
statement,  instead  of  being  satisfied  for  the  time  being  with 
an  incomplete  statement  in  the  form  suggested.  Moreover, 
the  ordinary  practice  distorts  the  purpose  of  the  term,  or  symbol, 
at  the  stage  of  learning  that  has  been  reached.  Its  purpose 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  225 

is  to  make  definite  and  portable  a  meaning  that  has  been 
worked  out.  The  stress  should  be  placed  on  this  meaning 
rather  than  on  the  more  complete  meaning  which  may  be 
developed  later.  If  the  practice  advocated  here  is  followed, 
there  will  be  less  memorizing  of  definitions  as  mere  words 
without  meanings. 

Generalizing  is  a  constant  process,  not  a  final  step.  —  In 
this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  a  somewhat  similar 
practice  should  prevail  in  the  learning  of  general  proposi- 
tions and  rules,  as  well  as  in  learning  abstract  and  general 
meanings.  Unfortunately  the  idea  is  often  implied,  in  books 
on  methods  of  teaching,  that  generalization  is  almost  the 
last  step  in  the  process  of  reaching  a  refined  and  exact 
general  meaning  or  conclusion.  The  opposite  and  true 
notion  is  expressed  by  Dewey  as  follows  : 

Generalization  is  not  a  separate  and  single  act ;  it  is  rather  a 
constant  tendency  and  function  of  the  entire  discussion  or  recitation. 
Every  step  forward  toward  an  idea  that  comprehends,  that  explains, 
that  unites  what  was  isolated  and  therefore  puzzling,  generalizes. 
.  .  .  The  factor  of  formulation,  of  conscious  stating,  involved  in 
generalization  should  also  be  a  constant  function,  not  a  single 
formal  act.  Definition  means  essentially  the  growth  of  a  meaning 
out  of  vagueness  into  definiteness.  Such  final  verbal  definition  as 
takes  place  should  be  only  the  culmination  of  a  steady  growth  in 
distinctness.  In  the  reaction  against  ready-made  verbal  definitions 
and  rules  the  pendulum  should  never  swing  to  the  opposite  extreme, 
that  of  neglecting  to  summarize  the  net  meaning  that  emerges  from 
dealing  with  particular  facts.  Only  as  general  summaries  are  made 
from  time  to  time  does  the  mind  reach  a  conclusion  or  a  resting 
place,  and  only  as  conclusions  are  reached  is  there  an  intellectual 
deposit  available  in  future  understanding.  (5  :  211) 

4.  Exercises  should  test  the  student's  grasp  of  new 
meanings.  —  The  fourth  question  of  method  raised  on 
page  212  concerned  the  use  of  exercises  to  test  the  student's 
grasp  of  the  new  abstract  meanings  or  rules.  Examples  of 


226  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

such  exercises  are  given  on  pages  209-2 1 1 .  These  exercises 
not  only  test  his  understanding  of  the  new  idea,  but  may 
also  broaden  this  understanding  and  give  practice  in  using 
and  applying  the  idea.  When  these  exercises  take  the 
form  of  rather  complex  problems  to  be  solved,  some  of 
the  general  principles  of  training  in  problem-solving  which 
are  summarized  on  pages  199-200  may  be  applied  in  the 
teaching. 

Summary  of  teaching  abstract  and  general  meanings.  — 
The  general  rules  for  teaching  the  meaning  of  abstract 
and  general  terms  which  we  have  been  discussing  may  be 
summarized  as  follows : 

1 .  Experiences  of  clear-cut  typical  examples.  —  Assure  that  the  stu- 
dents have  real  personal  experiences  0/"carefully  selected  clear-cut  typical 
examples  which  embody  or  illustrate  the  meaning  or  rule  that  is  to 
be  taught. 

2.  Active  analysis  and  comparison Require  active  analytical 

study  and  comparison  of  these  examples  by  the  students. 

3.  Continuous  defining,  —  Require  and  aid  the  students  to  keep  sum- 
marizing the  meaning  or  rule  which  they  are  gradually  building  up, 
eventually  reaching  a  clear,  precise  statement  of  it. 

4.  Practice  in  using.  —  Provide  well-selected  problems  or  exercises 
to  give  students  practice  in  recognizing  and  using  the  new  idea  in  new 
complex  situations. 

These  principles,  together  with  some  of  those  set  forth 
in  the  preceding  section  on  problem-solving,  may  govern 
the  teaching  of  abstract  and  general  propositions  such  as 
those  set  forth  on  page  206,  as  well  as  the  teaching  of 
abstract  and  general  terms. 

Generalizations  aid  in  solving  personal  and  social  problems. 
-  It  is  desirable  to  keep  in  mind  the  relation  of  the  discussion 
in  this  section  of  the  chapter  to  the  whole  chapter  and  to  the 
first  section.  The  whole  topic  of  the  chapter  is  Reflective 
Thinking.  The  aspect  of  this  topic  which  was  discussed  in 
Section  I  was  the  solution  of  problems.  The  aspect  discussed 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  227 

in  this,  the  second  section,  is  the  acquiring  of  abstract  and 
general  meanings.  The  chief  practical  reason  for  acquiring 
these  meanings  is  that  they  may  help  in  solving  problems.  As 
James  says,  "  The  whole  function  of  conceiving,  of  fixing  and 
holding  fast  to  meanings,  has  no  significance  apart  from  the 
fact  that  the  conceiveris  a  creature  with  partial  purposes  and 
private  ends"  (6  Vol.  1 :  482.)  The  ways  in  which  general 
meanings  may  help  in  solving  problems  or  attaining  the  private 
ends  mentioned  by  James  will  be  discussed  briefly  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph.  This  is  partly  a  repetition  of  the  discussion 
on  pages  190-192,  but  from  a  slightly  different  point  of  view. 
By  identifying  a  particular  problem  as  an  example  of  a 
known  class. — An  abstraction,  or  general  notion,  may  be  used 
in  two  ways.  First,  when  confronted  by  some  particular  diffi- 
culty or  problem,  if  it  can  be  identified  as  an  example  of  some 
general  class  which  is  already  understood,  the  methods  of 
dealing  with  it  are  easily  determined.  For  example,  recently 
it  has  been  discovered  that  many  diseases  are  transmitted  by 
insects.  In  connection  with  this  discovery  a  technique  of 
guarding  against  and  destroying  insects  has  been  developed, 
and  the  public  is  being  educated  to  believe  in  it  and  use  it. 
Now,  in  investigating  the  cause  of  some  particular  disease  the 
medical  investigator  has  the  advantage  of  knowing  that  it  may 
be  spread  by  insects,  and  he  keeps  this  possibility  in  mind  as 
he  makes  his  experiments.  If  he  succeeds  in  discovering  and 
proving  that  it  is  carried  by  a  certain  insect  in  a  certain  way, 
then  the  methods  that  have  been  developed  for  handling  simi- 
lar cases  may  be  used.  That  is,  as  soon  as  he  can  isolate  and 
identify  the  abstract  phase  of  the  disease,  "  carried  by  insects 
in  certain  ways,"  he  can  take  advantage  of  all  the  general 
knowledge  that  has  been  developed  about  the  class  "  diseases 
spread  by  insects."  The  notable  examples  of  this  class  are 
yellow  fever  spread  by  the  Stegomyia  mosquito ;  malaria 
spread  by  the  Anopheles  mosquito ;  typhoid  spread  partially 
by  house  flies ;  plague  spread  by  rats  and  fleas. 


228  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

By  inferring  the  practical  corollaries  of  the  general  fact.  — 
The  second  way  in  which  an  abstraction,  or  general  princi- 
ple, may  prove  useful  in  reflective  thinking  is  by  inferring 
what  further  consequences  must  follow  from  it.  For  example, 
suppose  it  is  shown  that  original  nature  (inborn  characteris- 
tics almost  entirely  hereditary  in  character)  is  a  very  powerful 
factor  in  determining  an  individual's  achievements  —  that  it 
determines  his  possibilities  and  sets  definite  limitations  be- 
yond which  he  cannot  go.  Given  this  as  a  starting  point,  the 
following  practical  corollaries  might  be  inferred :  (a)  In  the 
choice  of  vocations  the  most  important  thing  is  to  determine 
first  the  individual's  inborn  capacities,  (b]  The  school  should 
provide  a  many-sided  curriculum  in  order  to  determine  students' 
capacities,  (c]  It  should  provide  opportunities  for  students  to 
specialize,  (d)  It  should  have  a  flexible  system  of  promotion 
which  would  not  retard  a  student  because  of  lack  of  capacity 
in  some  special  line,  (e)  The  improvement  of  society  depends 
to  a  large  extent  on  the  selection  of  the  better  individuals  to 
have  descendants.  (/)  Idiots,  imbeciles,  etc.  should  not  be 
permitted  to  have  descendants.  Thus,  starting  from  a  single 
fundamental  general  principle,  a  host  of  further  practical 
consequences  may  be  inferred. 

Summary  of  discussion  of  reflective  thinking.  —  Thus  we 
are  brought  back  to  the  issues  with  which  the  chapter  opened. 
The  discussion  began  with  an  analysis  of  the  part  played  by 
problem-solving  in  everyday  life  and  an  account  of  the  pro- 
visions for  such  mental  activity  in  schools.  The  reflective 
solution  of  a  problem  was  then  shown  to  involve  the  selection, 
from  a  mass  of  associated  ideas,  of  those  which  seemed  to  bear 
upon  the  problem.  Success  in  this  process  was  shown  to  de- 
pend upon  fertility  of  suggestion,  critical  evaluation  of  sug- 
gested methods  from  the  standpoint  of  the  problem  in  hand, 
and  care  in  organizing  the  suggestions  which  were  accepted. 
In  connection  with  the  discussion  of  fertility  of  suggestion  it 
was  shown  that  the  recall  of  general  principles  which  might 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  229 

apply  to  the  particular  case  in  question  is  one  effective  method 
of  solving  problems.  The  ways  in  which  these  general  prin- 
ciples or  abstract  and  general  meanings  are  learned  were  dis- 
cussed in  detail  in  the  second  section  of  the  chapter,  and  the 
pedagogical  principles  which  were  developed  were  summa- 
rized on  page  226.  Finally,  examples  were  given  to  show 
how  these  general  ideas,  when  once  acquired,  do  contribute 
to  the  solution  of  practical  social  problems.1 

This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  third  type  of 
learning,  namely,  reflective  thinking.  This  is  the  type  that 
is  most  difficult  to  understand,  but  the  one  that  pedagogical 
writers  have  often  approached  with  the  most  assurance. 
Some  of  the  books  which  deal  with  methods  of  teaching 
have  been  entirely  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  teaching  of 
lessons  involving  reflective  thinking,  and  have  completely 
neglected  to  discuss  the  other  four  types  of  learning  which 
we  outlined  on  pages  96-97  and  which  are  of  fundamental 
importance  in  social  life  and  in  the  school.  The  first  of  these 
types  of  learning  which  we  discussed  was  acquiring  motor 
skill,  as  in  learning  gymnastic  feats  and  acquiring  vocal 
skill.  The  second  type  was  associating  symbols  and  mean- 
ings, especially  in  the  learning  of  a  foreign  vocabulary.  The 
third  was  reflective  thinking.  In  the  next  chapter  we  shall 
take  up  the  fourth  type  of  learning  that  is  to  be  considered ; 
namely,  acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment,  which  is  prominent 
in  the  arts  and  in  sports  and  games. 

1  Some  instructors  may  wonder  at  two  omissions  from  this  chapter ; 
namely,  (i)  of  the  distinction  between  inductive  and  deductive  thinking, 
and  (2)  of  the  Herbartian  five  formal  steps.  The  part  played  by  induction 
and  deduction  in  any  example  of  thinking  is  so  difficult  to  understand  that 
its  introduction  into  the  discussion  is  of  no  help  to  the  student.  In  fact,  if 
Dewey's  characterization  of  induction  in  connection  with  the  burglar  ex- 
ample on  page  82  of  his  "  How  We  Think  "  is  correct,  most  of  the  peda- 
gogical discussions  use  the  term  deduction  incorrectly.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  the  Herbartian  formal  steps  parallel  closely  the  summary  given  on 
page  226,  they  can  be  discussed  to  best  advantage  in  Chapter  XXI  as  a 
method  of  planning  lessons. 


230  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Scientific  discussions,  i.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.  The  Educative  Process. 
(The  Macmillan  Company,  1905.)  Pp.  128-168.  Excellent  summary 
paragraph  in  very  technical  language  on  page  1 50.  See  also  pp.  284-3 1 5 
for  practical  discussions. 

2.  BONSER,  F.  G.    The  Reasoning  Ability  of  Children.  (Teachers 
College,  1910.)  Excellent  investigation  based  on  exact  measurements  in 
intermediate  grades. 

3.  COLVIN,  S.  S.  The  Learning  Process \  (The  Macmillan  Company, 
1911.)    Pp.  295-329.    Summary  from  Dewey's  psychological  point  of 
view,  with  practical  modifications;  by  an  expert  psychologist. 

4.  DE  GARMO,  C.    Principles  of  Secondary  Education.   (The  Mac- 
millan Company,  1908.)   Vol.  II,  Processes  of  Instruction.   The  whole 
book  deals  with  reasoning,  largely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  older  tra- 
ditional logic,  with  many  practical  examples. 

5.  DEWEY,  J.   How  We  Think.   (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1910.)    A 
masterly  treatment.    The  best  reference  for  mature  students.    Read  the 
whole  book  several  times.    Source  of  many  recent  discussions. 

6.  JAMES,  W.   Principles  of  Psychology.   (Henry  Holt  and  Com- 
pany, 1910.)  Vol.  I,  pp.  459-482,  on  conception;  Vol.  II,  pp.  323- 
360,  on  reasoning.   A  classic  discussion.   Attractive  style.    Large  influ- 
ence on  recent  thought. 

7.  MILLER,  I.  E.    The  Psychology  of  Thinking.   (The  Macmillan 
Company,  1909.) 

8.  WELTON,  J.   The  Logical  Bases  of  Education.  (The  Macmillan 
Company,   1899.)   A  simple  treatment  of  logic  and  scientific  method. 
Very  readable.    A  wealth  of  illustrations.     Exhibits  some  influence  of 
James.    See  chaps,  viii,  ix,  x,  xiii,  xiv,  xv,  on  reasoning.    See  chap,  xvi, 
on  definition. 

Practical  discussions.  See  also  numbers  14,  15,  and  20  below,  for 
excellent  discussion  of  problem-solving  methods  in  special  subjects. 

9.  CHARTERS,  W.W.  Methods  of  Teaching.  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co., 
revised  edition,  1912.)  Chaps,  xii,  xiii,  xix,  and  xx.  Dewey's  point  of  view, 
with  modifications  from  older  logic.    Also  influenced  by  Bagley  and 
Thorndike.    Criticizes  Herbartian  formal  steps. 

10.  STRAYER,  G.  D.  The  Teaching  Process.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911.)  Chaps,  v  and  vi.  Based  on  Herbartian  formal  steps, 
with  modifications  from  Dewey,  Thorndike,  and  Bagley. 

n.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seiler,  1905.) 
Chaps,  ix  and  x.  The  best  discussion  of  helping  students  to  reason. 
Has  influenced  many  recent  discussions. 


REFLECTIVE  THINKING  231 

Other  books  referred  to  in  the  chapter.  1 2.  GALTON,  F.  Inquiries 
into  Human  Faculty  and  its  Development.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1883.) 

13.  DEWEY,  J.    Science  as  Subject-Matter  and  as  Method.   Science, 
January,  1910,  Vol.  XXXI,  pp.  121-127. 

14.  DUNCALF,  F.,  and  KREY,  A.  C.  Parallel  Source  Problems  in 
Mediceval  History.   (Harper  &  Brothers,  1912.) 

15.  KEATINGE,  M.  W.  Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History.  (A.  and 
C.  Black,  1910.) 

1 6.  MANN,  C.  R.    The  Teaching  of  Physics.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1912.) 

1 7.  MARSHALL,  C.  C.,  WRIGHT,  C.  W.,  and  FIELD,  J.  A.    Outlines 
of  Economics  developed  as  a  Series  of  Problems.    (The  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1912.) 

1 8.  NEWELL,  L.  C.  Experimental  Chemistry.  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
1900.) 

19.  PEARSON,  KARL.   The  Grammar  of  Science.   (A.  and  C.  Black, 
1911.) 

20.  REMSEN,  I.   Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chemistry.   (Henry 
Holt  and  Company,   1893.) 

21.  SCHULTZE,  A.    The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  Secondary 
Schools.   (The  Macmillan  Company,  1912.) 

22.  STONE,  J.  C.,  and  MILLIS,  J.  F.  Essentials  of  Algebra.  (Benj.  H. 
Sanborn  &  Co.,  1905.) 

23.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.   Elements  of  Psychology.  (A.   G.   Seiler, 
1905.) 

24.  WHEWELL,  W.  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences.  (D.  Appleton 
and  Company,  1901.)  Vol.  I. 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  IX,  plus  lesson  plans 
and  a  complete  stenographic  report  of  a  model  lesson  for  teaching  a 
new  abstract  idea,  see  Exercises  for  "  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High 
Schools"  pp.  E82-EII4. 

For  similar  material  on  Chapter  X,  including  extensive  additions  to 
the  bibliography,  see  pp.  E  1 1 7-E 140. 


CHAPTER  X 

FORMING  HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i.  Since  training  for  enjoyment 
of  leisure  time  is  one  of  the  ultimate  aims  of  education,  the 
methods  to  be  used  deserve  special  consideration. 

2.  The  examples  to  be  discussed  include  training  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  sports  and  games,  clubs  and  parties,  dancing,   music, 
literature,  and  the  drama. 

3.  In  discussing  music,  literature,  and  the  drama  we  shall  avoid 
the  use  of  the  term  appreciation  in  order  to  avoid  confusing  the 
issues. 

4.  We  shall  also  assume  that  there  is  no  necessary  connection 
between  the  enjoyment  of  artistic  productions  and  morality,  that 
is,  the  desire  and  endeavor  to  work  for  the  common  good. 

5.  In  all  lines  of  enjoyment  the  educator  must  plan  to  develop 
such  habits  as  are  practiced  by  ordinary,  well-behaved,  cultivated 
people.    In  literature  these  include  primarily  the  reading  of  books 
of  fiction  and  the  serious  articles  and  fiction  printed  in  contempo- 
rary magazines. 

6.  All  selections  and  activities  should  be  within  the  range  of 
the  interests  and  understanding  of  the  students,  and  enjoyment 
should  characterize  every  step  of  the  development. 

7.  In  the  case  of  young  people  and  most  adults  the  relatively 
primitive  forms  of  enjoyment  connected  with  story,  color,  rhythm, 
melody,  action,  humor,  etc.   are  more  important  than  those  re- 
lated to  structure,  composition,  meter,  choice  of  words,  figures 
of  speech,  technical  analysis,  etc.    The  former  are  just  as  good 
from  the  moral  standpoint  as  are  the  latter. 

8.  Among  teachers  of  English  there  is  a  very  active  radical 
movement  for  the  humanizing  of  the  study  of  literature  by  re- 
lating it  to  everyday  interests. 

232 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          233 

Emotional  aspect  uppermost  in  the  consideration.  —  In 
preceding  chapters  we  discussed  three  types  of  learning : 
namely,  acquiring  motor  skill,  associating  symbols  and  mean- 
ings, and  reflective  thinking.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  dis- 
cuss a  fourth  type,  namely,  forming  habits  of  harmless 
enjoyment  or  recreation.  Examples  of  this  process  are 
found  in  training  in  enjoying  athletic  sports,  dancing,  music, 
drama,  books,  scenery,  statuary,  paintings,  etc.  This  type  of 
learning  is  related  somewhat  to  the  other  types  which  we 
have  discussed,  but  in  some  respects  it  is  obviously  unlike 
acquiring  motor  skill  or  a  foreign  vocabulary  or  habits  of 
reflective  thought.  The  chief  point  of  difference  is  in  the 
fact  that  the  emotional  element,  enjoyment,  is  the  chief 
factor,  the  very  starting  point  for  all  the  consideration  and 
discussion. 

Already  discussed  as  an  aim  and  in  other  connections.  — 
The  problem  of  forming  habits  of  enjoyment  has  already 
been  touched  upon  in  earlier  chapters  in  several  connections. 
In  the  chapter  on  the  broadening  purposes  of  high-school 
education,  training  for  harmless  enjoyment  was  included  as 
one  of  the  three  fundamental  aims  of  the  school,  the  other 
two  being  good  will  and  social  efficiency  (economic,  civic, 
and  domestic)  (see  p.  17).  In  the  discussion  of  the  proximate 
aims  in  the  same  chapter  the  points  made  concerning  the 
development  of  abiding  many-sided  interests  are  also  related 
to  the  present  discussion,  since  recreational  interests,  or  ha- 
bitual tendencies  to  reach  out  after  certain  forms  of  enjoy- 
ment, are  among  the  most  important  of  human  interests 
(see  p.  22).  The  habit-forming  aspect  was  also  referred  to 
among  the  proximate  aims  (p.  20),  and  some  of  the  general 
conditions  of  habit-formation  were  brought  out  in  the  discus- 
sions of  association  (p.  1 24)  and  especially  of  practice  or  drill 
(pp.  1 24-1 53).  In  the  latter  connection  the  importance  of  the 
influence  of  spontaneous  interest  as  a  factor  in  the  effective 
and  economical  formation  of  motor  and  intellectual  habits 


234  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

was  emphasized.  Since  spontaneous  interest  is  so  important 
in  forming  habits  of  these  types,  it  is  obvious  that  it  must  be 
of  even  greater  importance  in  forming  habits  of  enjoyment, 
that  is,  habits  in  which  the  response  that  is  to  be  connected 
with  a  given  type  of  situation  is  emotional  in  character. 

Widespread  recognition  of  need  of  training  to  enjoy  lei- 
sure. —  The  problem  of  providing  harmless  forms  of  recrea- 
tion for  Americans  is  discussed  at  length  by  J.  P.  Garber  in 
his  Current  Educational  Activities  for  1911.  In  the  preface 
the  editor,  commenting  on  the  vocational  and  recreational 
movements  together,  says  : 

If  one  were  to  indicate  a  [contemporary]  movement  more  radi- 
cally different  and  yet  more  largely  promising  than  another,  it  is 
the  general  movement  that  in  one  form  or  another  endeavors  to 
make  the  school  an  opportunity  not  only  to  study  but  also  to  work 
and  to  play.  .  .  .  The  vocational  propaganda  has  achieved  sub- 
stantial recognition.  The  recreational  activity,  deep  fraught  with 
moral  purpose,  is  steadily  sweeping  forward.  It  is  just  as  essen- 
tial to  a  stable  social  order  that  the  individual  should  know  how  to 
spend  his  recreational  hours  as  it  is  [that  he  should  know  how]  to 
spend  his  vocational  hours. 

In  commenting  on  the  failure  to  provide  amusements, 
particularly  for  adolescent  boys  and  girls,  the  author  quotes 
from  Jane  Addams,  of  Hull  House,  Chicago,  as  saying : 

We  have  no  sense  of  responsibility  in  regard  to  the  pleasures  of 
young  people,  and  continually  forget  that  amusement  is  stronger 
than  vice  and  that  it  alone  can  stifle  the  lust  for  it.  We  see  all 
about  us  much  vice  which  is  merely  a  love  for  pleasure  "gone 
wrong  "  —  the  illicit  expression  of  what  might  have  been  not  only 
normal  and  recreative  pleasure  but  an  instrument  in  the  advance 
of  higher  social  morality.  (1 :  39) 

Among  the  recent  endeavors  to  provide  legitimate  recrea- 
tional opportunities  Garber  discusses  the  establishment  of  play- 
grounds, the  use  of  schools  as  recreation  centers,  supervised 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          235 

dances  in  schools  and  other  public  places  of  recreation, 
theaters,  Sunday  amusements,  athletic  contests,  and  dramatic 
activities.  He  considers  these  from  the  standpoint  of  rural 
needs  as  well  as  from  that  of  urban  needs. 

Phases  of  high-school  activity  involved.  —  In  the  case  of 
high-school  pupils  the  most  important  subjects  which  aim  to 
train  for  enjoyment  are  literature  (including  the  study  of  the 
drama)  and  music.  Less  important,  but  finding  recognition 
in  many  high  schools,  are  social  training  through  clubs  or 
societies  and  through  school  or  class  parties  with  dancing,  and 
training  which  provides  opportunities  for  all  students  to  par- 
ticipate in  athletic  contests.  We  shall  take  these  up  for  con- 
sideration in  the  reverse  order  from  that  in  which  they  are 
mentioned  in  this  paragraph. 

Participation  in  sports  and  games.  Chances  for  all.  — 
The  organization  in  high  schools  of  training  for  enjoying 
participation  in  sports  and  games  is  important  both  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  present  life  of  high-school  students  and 
from  the  standpoint  of  future  adult  habits.  In  most  large 
high  schools  the  common  practice  is  to  require  formal  gym- 
nastics of  all  students,  while  a  few  students  with  special 
physical  qualifications  or  special  interests  in  contests  become 
members  of  the  various  athletic  teams.  Usually  this  situation 
does  not  develop  in  many  students  the  habit  of  enjoying  the 
participation  in  such  activities.  In  a  few  exceptional  high 
schools  the  principle  is  adopted  that  the  development  of  a 
few  expert  teams  for  interschool  contests  is  relatively  unim- 
portant as  compared  with  the  organization  of  opportunities 
for  nearly  all  students  to  be  participants  in  sports  or  games, 
just  as  most  students  would  be  given  similar  training  in  the 
enjoyment  of  literature  or  music.  In  order  to  achieve  this 
result  the  extreme  emphasis  on  formal  gymnastics  disappears, 
and  much  attention  is  given  to  games  and  gymnastic  and  folk 
dancing.  These  statements  apply  to  the  activities  for  girls 
as  well  as  for  boys.  By  this  means  supervised  recreation  is 


236  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

provided,  which  not  only  brings  into  the  lives  of  the  students 
at  the  present  time  harmless  and  healthful  enjoyment,  but 
lays  the  basis  for  the  continuation  of  such  activities  after 
graduation.  As  the  importance  of  public  recreation  becomes 
better  appreciated,  more  and  more  opportunities  for  adult 
recreation  of  this  type  will  be  provided.  Even  at  the  present 
time  Y.M.C.A.  buildings,  social  settlements,  public  play- 
grounds, and  public  parks  with  tennis  courts  and  golf  courses 
offer  inexpensive  opportunities  for  many  persons. 

Teacher  must  secure  spirit  of  enjoyment.  —  In  the  organi- 
zation of  athletic  instruction  of  the  type  described,  the  per- 
sonality and  point  of  view  of  the  instructor  is  all-important. 
It  is  absolutely  essential  that  he  have  the  recreational  point 
of  view  and  that  he  endeavor  to  secure  the  spirit  of  enjoy- 
ment of  active  participation.  Unfortunately  many  gymnasium 
and  athletic  instructors  take  the  most  formal  point  of  view 
and  drive  students  through  drills  as  if  they  were  a  crowd  of 
conscripted  soldiers  or  convicts.  The  natural  result  is  that 
students  dislike  the  work  instead  of  enjoying  it  as  play  or 
recreation. 

Social  activities.  Departmental  clubs  interest  many.— 
The  organization  of  the  social  life  of  high-school  students  for 
purposes  of  enjoyment  is  a  problem  to  which  high-school 
administrators  are  giving  much  attention,  and  one  toward 
which  the  energies  of  instructors  who  have  capacity  for  such 
organization  might  well  be  directed.  The  trouble  caused  by 
the  development  of  fraternities  demonstrates  the  difficulties 
that  are  encountered  when  no  general  official  provision  is  made 
for  the  social  instincts  and  interests  of  students  and  these  are 
allowed  to  find  their  own  means  of  expression.  Under  expert 
guidance  or  suggestion  many  semidepartmental  clubs  or 
societies  can  be  established,  in  which  students  with  specialized 
interests  will  find  the  informal  sort  of  association  with  their 
fellows  that  they  desire  and  enjoy.  These  organizations  may 
include  literary  and  debating  societies,  dramatic  and  musical 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          237 

clubs,  engineering  societies,  etc.  Instructors  who  have  the 
right  temperament  and  capacity  for  assisting  students  in  the 
maintenance  of  such  organizations  by  helpful,  friendly  sug- 
gestion, without  the  appearance  of  domineering  control,  should 
be  made  responsible  for  cooperating  with  groups  of  students 
to  secure  the  desired  organizations.  It  is  surprising  how  many 
students,  often  of  the  conscientious  type,  go  through  school 
absolutely  lonely  as  far  as  intimate  friendly  association  with 
their  fellows  is  concerned.  An  hour  a  week  devoted  by  an 
instructor  to  the  interests  of  a  small  social  group  may  bring 
enormous  returns  in  the  form  of  present  enjoyment  and  future 
habits  of  enjoyment,  since  this  method  of  securing  recreation 
plays  a  considerable  part  in  the  lives  of  adult  men  and  women 
and  may  play  a  larger  part  if  the  school  provides  appropriate 
training. 

Supervised  dancing  directs  natural  impulses  into  harmless 
channels.  —  One  of  the  most  attractive  and  popular  forms 
of  enjoyment  for  adolescents  and  adults  up  to  a  certain  age 
is  dancing.  Nearly  everyone  who  has  learned  to  dance  enjoys 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  many  persons  dislike  receptions,  and 
many  do  not  enjoy  parties  without  dancing.  To  the  school, 
dancing  presents  the  same  problem  that  fraternities  present. 
If  properly  supervised  opportunities  for  dancing  are  not  pro- 
vided, many  of  the  students  will  seek  opportunities  under 
conditions  that  are  much  less  desirable  and  that  are  often 
positively  harmful.  Experience  in  a  number  of  situations  in- 
dicates that  the  school  that  provides  opportunities  in  this  line 
secures  much  better  results  than  does  one  that  either  disregards 
or  taboos  dancing.  From  the  standpoint  of  future  habits  of 
enjoyment  the  school  has  the  opportunity  to  introduce  many 
students  to  a  form  of  enjoyment  that  is  based  on  some  of  the 
most  fundamental  characteristics  of  human  nature,  and  the 
opportunity  to  develop  in  all  students  habits  of  refinement 
and  good  taste  that  will  offset  somewhat  the  appeal  of  vulgar- 
izing tendencies  that  are  occasionally  associated  with  dancing. 


238  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Supervisor  must  have  correct  standards  and  temperament. 
—  In  the  organization  of  dancing  as  a  part  of  the  recreation 
of  high-school  students  the  instructors  who  would  be  most 
concerned  are  those  of  the  department  of  physical  education 
and  members  of  other  departments  who  have  the  personal 
qualifications  for  dealing  with  such  matters.  Here,  as  in  all 
our  discussion  of  training  for  enjoyment,  the  individual 
differences  between  teachers  are  most  fundamental.  Just  as 
certain  instructors,  though  excellent  in  ordinary  teaching,  fail 
miserably  in  organizing  student  clubs,  so  in  the  organization 
of  dancing  for  recreation,  the  wrong  temperament  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  may  result  in  failure  both  from  the  stand- 
point of  enjoyment  and  from  the  standpoint  of  morals. 

In  the  High  School  of  The  University  of  Chicago  the 
organization  of  the  school  parties  is  described  in  the  follow- 
ing quotation  from  the  catalogue  : 

Parties.  —  Every  Friday  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  at  the 
close  of  the  afternoon  session,  an  informal  dance,  open  to  all 
members  of  the  school,  is  conducted  under  school  supervision. 
These  weekly  parties  have  been  given  for  eight  years  and  have 
proved  to  be  most  helpful  in  the  school  life.  Since  all  receive 
during  the  regular  gymnastic  classes  the  necessary  instruction  in 
dancing,  they  come  to  the  parties  able  to  participate  on  even  terms. 
It  is  the  custom  of  the  boys  and  girls  to  come  individually.  No 
cards  or  programs  are  permitted.  In  form,  the  dance  is  a  modified 
cotillion.  Pupils  must  be  prompt  in  coming  and  must  remain 
throughout  the  hour.  It  has  come  to  be  the  accepted  rule  of  the 
afternoon  that  no  pupil  may  refuse  to  dance  with  another.  Public 
courtesy  and  school  comradeship  characterize  these  very  simple  but 
important  social  gatherings. 

Music.  Two  possibilities  :  participation  and  listening.  — 
Training  for  the  enjoyment  of  music  is  rapidly  being  intro- 
duced into  most  large  high  schools.  The  opportunities  pro- 
vided may  be  divided  into  two  types :  namely,  (i)  training 
through  participation  in  musical  performances,  and  (2)  training 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          239 

through  listening  to  music.  Both  types  of  enjoyment  play 
a  prominent  part  in  adult  life ;  therefore  training  for  each 
should  be  provided.  Enjoyment  through  listening  to  music 
plays  a  much  larger  part  in  American  social  life  than  does 
enjoyment  through  participation.  The  possibilities  of  pro- 
viding opportunities  for  enjoyment  through  participation 
have  not  been  taken  advantage  of  as  extensively  in  America 
as  in  some  European  countries,  notably  Germany. 

Premature  formal  technical  methods  kill  enjoyment.  — 
Here,  as  in  the  other  phases  of  enjoyment  which  we  have 
discussed,  the  point  of  view,  attitude,  and  method  of  the  in- 
structor is  of  first  importance  if  present  enjoyment  or  future 
habits  of  enjoyment  are  to  be  secured.  Too  commonly  the 
music  periods  are  regarded  by  many  students  as  a  mild  form 
of  punishment.  A  teacher  who  visited  the  instruction  in 
one  high  school  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  said  that  the 
freshman  sang  with  some  spontaneity  and  interest,  but  that 
the  other  classes  had  had  all  of  these  characteristics  killed 
off  by  the  highly  formalized,  technical  methods  which  the 
instructor  used. 

Simple,  primitive  forms  of  enjoyment  first :  unison  sing- 
ing. —  Obviously,  if  students  are  expected  to  enjoy  singing, 
it  is  important  that  the  teacher  begin  with  songs  adapted  to 
the  stage  of  development  that  they  have  reached,  and  that 
abundant  opportunity  should  be  given  for  the  enjoyment  of 
relatively  simple  melodies  and  harmonies  before  advanced, 
intricate  compositions  are  attacked  or  much  formal  technical 
practice  attempted.  In  this  connection  Farnsworth  says  : 

If  the  full  aesthetic  value  of  chorus  singing  is  to  be  attained,  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  music  selected  should  be  the 
gems  of  the  art,  and  these  should  be  memorized  and  so  learned 
that  they  can  be  enjoyed  after  the  student  has  left  school.  Unfortu- 
nately the  desire  to  perform  ambitious  works,  such  as  oratorio 
choruses,  not  only  strains  the  voices  by  the  extremes  of  pitch  and 
power  that  such  works  generally  demand,  but  after  the  student  has 


240  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

left  the  school  he  is  able  to  reproduce  his  pleasure  only  as  he 
becomes  a  member  of  a  chorus  where  such  works  are  given. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  more  attention  is  paid  to  unison  songs, 
where  associations  can  be  made  between  the  text  and  the  melody, 
the  student  will  have  within  his  own  power  of  reproduction  beauti- 
ful works,  thus  adding  to  his  racial  inheritance  in  song  the  rich 
association  of  a  joyous  youth.  (7  :  323-324) 

Remarkable  results  achieved  in  Richmond,  Indiana.  — 
The  possibilities  of  developing  habits  of  enjoying  music  in 
good  company  and  to  a  considerable  extent  by  continued  par- 
ticipation after  leaving  school  are  well  illustrated  in  the  town 
of  Richmond,  Indiana,  which  has  a  population  of  about  25,000. 
Here,  owing  to  the  able  instruction  and  guidance  of  one  of 
the  most  competent  directors  of  public-school  music  in  the 
country,  the  high  school  with  its  large  auditorium  became 
the  musical  center  of  the  town. 

It  is  the  meeting  place  of  four  musical  bodies :  (i)  the  People's 
Symphony  Orchestra,  which  meets  in  this  auditorium  for  four  hours' 
rehearsal  and  public  concert  every  Sunday  afternoon  from  October 
until  May ;  (2)  the  People's  Chorus,  consisting  of  some  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  voices,  which  meets  regularly  one  evening  per  week 
through  the  year ;  (3)  the  High-School  Chorus ;  (4)  the  High- 
School  Orchestra,  which  furnishes  the  music  for  the  school  assem- 
bly meetings  and  for  other  school  gatherings.  (5:  121) 

The  first  two  of  these  organizations  are  recruited  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  from  the  graduates  of  the  third  and  fourth. 
Thus  the  school  has  made  it  possible  for  a  community  to  de- 
velop a  means  of  providing  itself  with  opportunities  for  the 
enjoyment  of  music  "  that  will  offset  the  attractions  of  the 
saloon,  the  beer  garden,  the  dance  hall,  the  low-class  music 
halls  (so  called),  and  other  debasing  social  agencies,  all  of  which 
use  music  of  some  sort  as  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  attrac- 
tion." For  a  more  complete  account  of  the  Richmond  experi- 
ment see  the  article  by  J.  F.  Bobbitt  in  the  Elementary  School 
Teacher  for  November,  1911. 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          241 

Training  of  choice  and  taste  through  listening. — The  dis- 
cussion of  musical  training  up  to  this  point  has  been  concerned 
largely  with  training  through  participation  in  musical  perform- 
ances. In  recent  years,  owing  to  the  rapid  development  of 
mechanical  players  (various  modifications  of  the  phonograph 
and  mechanical  piano  players),  courses  have  developed  in  high 
schools  and  colleges  which  train  for  the  enjoyment  of  music 
through  listening  instead  of  singing  or  playing.  In  comment- 
ing on  these  one  authority  says  : 

If  we  are  to  develop  a  truly  musical  nation,  the  child  must  have 
a  wider  musical  experience  than  he  can  ever  cover  in  his  own  sing- 
ing. He  must  have  good  music  and  much  good  music  presented 
to  him  through  the  medium  of  hearing.  Exquisite  enjoyment  may 
be  experienced  by  contemplating  a  rose  and  inhaling  its  fragrance 
without  the  slightest  knowledge  of  its  structure  from  the  botanist's 
point  of  view  [or  of  its  color  or  odor  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
painter  and  psychologist].  In  like  manner  the  more  attractive  pieces 
by  the  great  composers  can,  if  judiciously  presented,  give  great 
pleasure  without  the  slightest  knowledge  of  their  structure  from 
the  theorist's  point  of  view.  (8  :  ion) 

Learn  to  recognise,  whistle,  and  hum  themes.  —  In  discus- 
sing the  administration  of  such  "  acquaintance  "  courses  in 
high  schools  Farnsworth  says  : 

No  adequate  standards  of  this  kind  of  work  have  been  established 
as  yet.  Some  dwell  on  the  historic  and  human  connections  of  what 
is  being  heard ;  others  go  into  the  analysis  of  the  form ;  but  per- 
haps the  most  valuable  for  the  general  public  and  at  the  same 
time  the  simplest  to  manage  so  that  a  genuine  aesthetic  value  shall 
result  is  to  have  the  students  hear  the  works  a  sufficient  number 
of  times  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  whistle  or  hum  the  important 
themes. 

Importance  of  knowing  musical  motives.  —  As  music  is  an 
organic  creation,  generally  based  on  a  few  striking  motives,  to  learn 
these  motives  so  thoroughly  that  they  can  be  readily  recognized  and 
associated  with  the  works  to  which  they  belong  would  give  the 


242  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

result  to  the  student  in  a  nutshell  and  would  guarantee  the  most 
intelligent  enjoyment  when  these  works  were  heard  from  great 
orchestras  and  choruses.  Not  that  some  attention,  both  as  to  human 
interest,  form,  and  structure,  should  not  accompany  such  work ;  but 
the  pupil  should  be  able,  when  asked  if  he  knows  the  G-minor 
Fugue  of  Bach,  to  have  naturally  spring  into  his  mind  the  rollicking 
theme,  rather  than  the  fact  that  the  fugue  has  subject  and  counter- 
subject,  stretto,  and  pedal  point.  (7:  326-327) 

Meaning  of  enjoyment  is  clear;  of  appreciation,  vague. — In 
the  discussion  of  forming  habits  of  enjoyment  or  recreation 
up  to  this  point  we  have  considered  participation  in  sports  and 
athletic  games,  social  training  through  clubs  and  dancing,  and, 
finally,  the  enjoyment  of  music.  In  all  of  these  we  have  been 
able  to  discuss  our  subject  by  confining  ourselves  to  the  use 
of  the  term  enjoyment  and  have  purposely  avoided  the  use  of 
the  term  appreciation.  This  has  been  done  because  the  term 
enjoyment  is  relatively  clear  in  its  connotation,  while  the  term 
appreciation  is  one  of  the  most  undefined  and  loosely  used 
words  to  be  found  in  pedagogical  discussions.  When  a  per- 
son says  he  enjoys  listening  to  the  sextet  from  the  opera 
"  Lucia,"  you  have  a  fairly  clear  idea  of  what  he  means,  but 
if  he  says  he  appreciates  the  same  selection,  his  statement 
may  have  any  one  of  the  four  following  meanings  :  (i)  that 
he  enjoys  listening  to  it ;  (2)  that  he  understands  its  relation 
to  the  rest  of  the  opera,  or  the  fine  points  in  its  orchestra- 
tion, or  some  other  aspect  of  it ;  (3)  that  he  both  enjoys  and 
understands  it ;  (4)  that  he  understands  it  but  does  not 
enjoy  it.  All  of  these  meanings  are  self-evident,  except 
perhaps  the  fourth,  of  which  the  following  incident  is  an 
example. 

One  of  the  best-known  professional  pianists  gave  a  per- 
formance in  Chicago  in  which  his  aim  in  rendering  certain 
selections  seemed  to  be  to  show  that  he  had  so  mastered  the 
technique  of  fingering  that  he  could  raise  his  hands  to  great 
heights  and  bring  them  down  with  enormous  force  and  hit 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          243 

the  right  keys.  The  result  was  such  jangling  sounds  from 
the  grand  piano  that  one  could  hardly  believe  they  came 
from  the  instrument,  but  suspected  that  the  stage  hands  were 
dropping  scrap  iron  behind  the  scenes.  The  next  day  one  of 
the  best  musical  critics  wrote  an  account  of  the  performance, 
setting  forth  what  seemed  to  be  the  performer's  purpose, 
and  stating  that  in  the  critic's  opinion  the  interpretation  was 
in  many  places  incorrect,  that  it  was  entirely  lacking  in 
harmony  or  beauty,  and  that  he  found  it  very  unenjoyable. 
Certainly  one  could  not  say  that  this  expert  critic  failed  to 
understand  the  performance  (or  to  appreciate  it,  as  far  as  an 
understanding  of  musical  technique  is  what  is  meant  by 
appreciation),  but  clearly  he  did  not  enjoy  it. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  seems  desirable  to  use  the  terms 
enjoyment  and  understanding  as  an  aid  to  clearness  in  our 
thinking,  and  to  avoid  the  term  appreciation. 

Understanding  need  not  improve  or  intensify  enjoyment. 
— This  chapter  is  concerned  primarily  with  enjoyment.  It 
is  concerned  with  understanding  only  to  the  extent  that  the 
latter  contributes  to  enjoyment.  It  is  obvious  that  much 
enjoyment  is  possible  with  relatively  little  understanding. 
Increased  understanding  may  bring  enjoyment  of  new  fea- 
tures or  aspects,  but  the  new  enjoyment  need  not  be  any 
better  or  any  keener  than  the  enjoyment  with  little  under- 
standing. For  example,  contrast  the  enjoyment  of  a  football 
game  by  two  spectators.  The  first  knows  nothing  of  the  fine 
points  of  the  game,  but  can  follow  roughly  the  general  trend 
of  events  and  feels  enthusiastically  happy  when  his  team  is 
winning.  The  second  spectator  sizes  up  each  play  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  technique  involved.  If  the  team  works 
smoothly  and  plays  are  handled  well,  he  is  pleased ;  if  poor 
judgment  is  shown  or  an  unskilled  performance  given,  he 
is  disgusted.  Evidently  his  enjoyment  is  no  keener  or  better 
than  that  of  the  first  spectator,  who  is  loyally  and  wildly  happy 
over  the  success  of  his  home  team 


244  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Confusing  understanding  and  enjoyment  common  in  teach- 
ing literature.  —  In  such  simple  cases  as  this  the  relation 
between  enjoying  and  understanding  gives  us  little  trouble 
in  our  pedagogical  considerations.  In  the  ordinary  discussions 
by  musicians  concerning  musical  training,  however,  there  is 
widespread  confusion  ;  hence,  in  our  brief  summary  of  some 
of  the  problems  of  training  for  the  enjoyment  of  music  we 
simply  quoted  the  statements  of  some  of  the  authorities  to 
the  effect  that  considerable  cultivated  enjoyment  is  possible 
with  relatively  little  understanding  of  theory  or  technique. 
In  the  next  two  sources  of  enjoyment  which  we  shall  con- 
sider, namely,  literature  and  the  drama,  the  question  of  the 
nature,  possibilities,  and  value  of  the  various  forms  of  enjoy- 
ment in  each  case  becomes  so  vital  that  we  shall  enter  into 
a  somewhat  abstract  psychological  analysis  and  description 
in  order  to  help  us  keep  our  bearings  in  the  pedagogical 
considerations  that  are  to  follow.  Inasmuch  as  there  is  very 
little  reliable  discussion  in  this  field,  I  shall  quote,  with  the 
author's  permission,  an  entire  five-page  article  published  by 
E.  L.  Thorndike  in  the  Teachers  College  Record  in  1901. 
The  paragraph  headlines  are  not  in  the  original  article,  and 
in  a  number  of  places  I  have  substituted  the  word  enjoyment 
in  brackets  for  the  word  appreciation. 

THE  AESTHETIC  EMOTIONS 

Need  a  psychological  analysis  of  aesthetic  emotions  and  their 
effects.  —  If  we  are  to  know  what  we  are  about  when  we  are 
teaching  English  literature  to  boys  and  girls,  we  must  get  some 
rational  account  of  what  the  aesthetic  emotions  are  and  what  they 
do  to  us.  Knowledge  abdicates  and  opinion  reigns  if  we  ask  just 
what  the  so-called  aesthetic  effects  are  and  what  difference  they 
make  in  one's  general  character.  This  is  a  psychological  question, 
to  be  settled  by  psychological  methods,  and  it  is  a  shame  that,  at 
least  since  Aristotle,  the  best  work  and  the  bulk  of  the  work  should 
have  been  done  by  literary  men  who  had  the  data  but  not  the 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          245 

means  of  handling  them  or  of  understanding  their  significance. 
The  equipment  fit  to  solve  the  question  is  that  of  a  gifted  person 
acquainted  with  psychology  and  possessed  of  psychological  insight, 
who  has  studied  extensively  the  effects  of  literature  on  people, 
particularly  on  children,  for  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  aes- 
thetic emotions  will  be  clear  only  in  the  light  of  their  origin  and 
development.  No  such  person  has  appeared  with  the  answer,  and 
we  must  be  content  with  clearing  a  passage  for  him  in  so  far  as 
present  data  allow. 

This  is  no  occasion  for  a  treatise  on  the  aesthetic  emotions  from 
the  standpoint  of  genetic  psychology,  and  no  such  treatise  will  be 
attempted.  Let  us  simply  try  to  see  clearly  what  facts  we  can 
state,  as  a  supplement  to  the  existing  material  on  aesthetic  and 
literary  criticism,  which  may  assist  the  intelligent  teacher  to  an 
insight  into  what  happens  when  students  are  led  to  read  literature 
ostensibly  for  aesthetic  enjoyment  —  for  fun. 

Three  types  of  enjoyment :  of  technique,  sensory  pleasures,  sugges- 
tiveness.  —  First  of  all,  with  any  given  piece  of  literature,  all  sorts 
of  different  things  happen  in  different  people.  Not  only  do  many 
of  them  fail  to  get  the  aesthetic  pleasure  intended,  but  in  those 
who  do,  it  takes  many  forms.  Of  those  who  do  not,  some  feel  in 
its  place  bona  fide  feelings,  actual  attitudes  toward  the  real  world, 
real,  not  aesthetic,  emotions.  These  may  be  to  them  desirable  or 
the  reverse.  Of  those  who  do  [get  aesthetic  pleasure],  some  feel 
an  enjoyment  of  the  technical  skill  with  which  the  writer  has 
secured  his  effect ;  they  enjoy  the  poem  as  the  football  expert  en- 
joys watching  a  game,  not  caring  which  side  advances,  unmoved 
by  the  zeal  of  combat,  influenced  only  by  the  skill  of  the  plays, 
the  adroitness  of  the  generalship,  the  technical  beauty  of  the  way 
things  are  done.  Some  feel  the  sensory  delights  of  rhythm  or 
melody ;  they  enjoy  the  poem  as  the  artist  might  enjoy  the  pro- 
portions of  the  football  player,  the  grace  and  ease  of  his  move- 
ments (rare  enough  in  a  football  player).  The  majority  enjoy 
what  is  poorly  called,  for  lack  of  a  better  word,  the  suggestiveness 
of  the  poem,  the  mood  it  arouses,  the  feelings  of  joy  or  sadness 
or  pity  or  faith,  that  are  not  real  joy  or  sadness  but  somehow 
are  sweet.  "  It  means  so  much ;  it  made  me  feel  the  thing,"  they 
say.  These  are  like  the  spectators  who  enjoy  a  football  game 


246  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

because  men  may,  and  do,  get  hurt  —  because  they  feel,  yet  with- 
out results  to  their  own  profit  or  loss,  the  ambition  for  victory,  the 
pluck  and  catastrophe  and  recovery.  There  are,  of  course,  all 
sorts  of  combinations  of  these  three  types. 

Mental  responses  to  literature :  ideas,  real  emotions,  enjoyment  of 
workmanship,  sensory  pleasures,  pseudo-emotions.  —  It  is  obvious 
that  what  we  would  at  first  blush  call  aesthetic  appreciation  turns 
out  to  be  now  one  thing,  now  another,  now  a  complex.  Indeed, 
many  people,  failing  to  experience  any  of  these  three  mental  con- 
ditions, take  definite  ideas  or  ordinary  emotional  feelings  to  be 
the  aesthetic  emotions  of  which  they  read.  Many  a  one  there  is 
who  reads  his  Browning  in  dead  earnest  as  a  sort  of  philosophy, 
—  commentary  on  human  nature  and  moral  guide,  —  happy  to 
get  great  ideas  and  feel  new  hatred  of  this  and  love  of  that,  and 
thinks  that  he  gets  all  there  is  in  the  poetry  for  anyone,  and  won- 
ders how  intelligent  people  can  endure  Keats.  From  this  am- 
biguity of  the  words  (esthetic  appreciation  and  esthetic  emotions  has 
arisen  much  confusion.  Let  us  therefore  use  the  terms  ideas,  real 
emotions,  enjoyment  of  workmanship,  sensory  pleasures,  and  pseudo- 
emotions  to  cover  the  main  facts  of  the  mental  conditions  aroused 
by  literature.  Of  these  terms  we  may  further  define  real  and  pseudo- 
emotions.  Let  us  mean  by  real  emotions  such  feelings  as  lead  us  to 
acts  appropriate  to  the  situation  if  real.  The  countryman  at  the 
theater  who  wants  to  climb  on  the  stage  and  knock  down  the  vil- 
lain in  the  play  offers  an  example.  Let  us  mean  \>y  pseudo-emotions 
such  feelings  as  do  not  [lead  us  to  acts  appropriate  to  the  situation 
if  real].  If  we  enjoy  reading  or  seeing  the  last  act  of  "  Othello," 
it  is  because  our  emotions  are  not  such  as  to  lead  us  to  shriek  with 
horror  or  turn  away  our  eyes  from  the  awful  sight.  We  may  now 
secure  some  profit  from  the  analysis  and  natural  history  of  these 
various  effects. 

Ideas.  —  The  ordinary  laws  of  human  nature  account  for  the 
nature  of  the  ideas  aroused  by  works  of  art,  and  we  have  seen 
that  in  practice  the  service  of  literature  in  presenting  ideas  and 
arousing  ideals  has  been  recognized. 

Real  emotions.  —  The  production  of  real  emotions  is  of  two 
sorts.  The  poem  or  story  may  arouse  the  emotion  which  the  facts 
or  events  portrayed  would  if  real,  or  it  may  arouse  some  different 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          247 

emotion.  The  example  [of  the  countryman  at  the  theater]  already 
given  is  of  the  first  sort.  The  arousal  of  a  high  flood  of  joyous 
excitement  by  the  description  of  a  double  duel  in  the  dark  is  of 
the  second  sort  The  practical  problem  of  when  and  where  it  is 
desirable  to  use  literature  to  induce  real  emotions  is  not  hard.  We 
may  merely  repeat  Professor  James's  warning  against  exciting  them 
without  providing  some  useful  outlet  in  conduct.  .  .  .  We  may 
also  suggest  that  the  rational  man  will  regulate  his  emotional  atti- 
tude toward  the  real  world  by  the  facts  of  that  world  itself  rather 
than  by  second-hand  and  often  distorted  pictures  of  them,  and 
that  there  is  some  danger  in  forever  wheedling  people  into  being 
wise  or  good  or  happy.  However,  as  things  go,  most  of  us  prob- 
ably will  have  to  be  wheedled. 

Enjoyment  of  workmanship.  —  The  enjoyment  of  workmanship 
is  so  rare  among  young  students  that  nothing  need  here  be  said  of  it. 

Sensory  pleasures.  —  The  sensory  pleasures  are  a  far  less  im- 
portant part  of  [enjoyment]  in  the  case  of  literature  than  in  the 
case  of  music,  painting,  or  sculpture.  Either  because  we  are  born 
with  organizations  which  like  certain  combinations  of  sounds, 
lengths,  stresses,  and  pauses,  or  because  these  combinations  have 
gone  with  other  desirable  things,  we  come  to  like  certain  rhythms 
etc.  The  explanation  of  those  due  to  our  organization  will  un- 
doubtedly turn  out  a  purely  physiological  one.  The  explanation 
of  the  second  sort  is  a  matter  of  association. 

The  sensory  pleasures  appear  early  in  the  child's  love  of  rhythm 
and  are  molded  by  precepts  to  some  extent,  still  more  by  example. 
The  aesthetic  education  of  children  in  the  purely  sensory  [enjoy- 
ment] of  literature  can  thus  begin  early. 

Pseudo-emotions. — What,  now,  of  the  chief  problem  in  the 
aesthetics  of  literature — the  nature  of  these  pseudo-emotions?  What 
is  the  aesthetic  pity  that  is  not  real  pity,  the  sympathy  with  the 
hero  which  does  not  produce  real  pain  or  real  tendencies  to  help 
him  ?  They  are  not  the  real  emotions  in  weaker  intensity.  On  the 
contrary,  they  may  be  stronger.  They  are  qualitatively  different. 
This  difference  is  not,  as  has  been  suggested  by  some  writers,  the 
absence  of  a  personal  element ;  we  do  not  feel  real  emotions  with 
a  personal  warmth  and  intimacy,  and  aesthetic,  or,  to  use  our  word, 
pseudo-emotions,  with  the  calm  of  an  indifferent  spectator. 


248  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  qualitative  difference  .  .  .  that  one  finds  by  observing  him- 
self and  questioning  other  people  [is]  that  the  painful  quality  of 
many  real  emotions  is  absent  from  their  pseudo-equivalents  —  [for 
example],  we  like  to  feel  pseudo-sorrow.  The  pseudo-emotions  are 
less  permanent  and  therefore  more  easily  modifiable.  The  tend- 
ency to  fatigue  and  prostration,  which  is  the  result  of  real  emo- 
tions, is  largely  absent  in  the  case  of  the  pseudo-emotions.  A  man 
tired  from  the  excitement  of  a  fit  of  rage  might  go  to  see  "  Othello  " 
to  get  rested. 

Enjoyment  as  contemplative  play.  —  If  we  now  become  genetic 
psychologists  for  a  moment,  we  may  find  the  key  to  the  real  nature 
and  function  of  these  emotions ;  for  they  evidently  grow  out  of 
the  imaginative  play  of  children.  Children  systematically  and  habit- 
ually turn  the  objects  and  events  of  the  natural  world  into  means 
for  keeping  their  mental  life  going.  They  themselves  play  the  roles 
and  make  their  own  actions  help  to  arouse  the  feelings  they  so 
enjoy.  They  learn  readily,  and  in  easily  ascertainable  ways,  to  so 
manipulate  their  environment  as  to  get  such  feelings  out  of  it  as 
do  not  bring  painful  consequences  or  the  need  of  hateful  inhibition 
and  effort.  A  witness  to  the  connection  between  the  later  pseudo- 
emotions  due  to  literature  and  the  earlier  pseudo-emotions  due  to 
play  is  found  in  the  frequent  tendency  of  young  readers  to  put 
themselves  in  the  place  of  some  one  of  the  personages  in  a  story. 
The  boy  makes  the  hero's  words  his  words,  the  hero's  acts  his  acts, 
and  lets  the  rest  of  the  book  be  a  stage  for  his  adventures,  and 
thus  assimilates  the  new  form  of  mental  play  to  the  old  form  in 
which  he  himself  did  actually  run  and  fight  and  conquer.  Were  I 
to  rename  the  process  of  enjoying  literature,  I  should  call  it  con- 
templative play.  Were  I  asked  to  tell  the  date  of  appearance  of 
the  aesthetic,  or  pseudo-emotions,  I  should  answer  that  when  the 
baby  begins  to  act  for  the  sake  of  gaining  feelings  other  than  those 
connected  with  such  purely  physical  matters  as  food,  warmth,  exer- 
cise, and  protection,  then  and  there  he  starts  on  the  aesthetic  high- 
way. When  he  begins  to  use  words  as  a  means  of  gaining  such 
feelings,  his  career  as  an  [enjoyer]  of  literature  has  begun,  and 
from  then  on  a  continuous  development  may  be  traced. 

Pseudo-emotions  from  literature  lack  real  pain  and  effort.  —  Chil- 
dren like  to  feel,  we  said  in  another  connection,  just  as  they  like 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          249 

to  move.  To  have  things  going  on  in  their  minds  is  per  se  desir- 
able. The  desirability  increases  in  proportion  as  they  can  exclude 
the  particular  elements  of  feeling  which  cause  discomfort.  Chief 
of  these  are  certain  sensations  and  emotions  which  nature  provides 
as  warning  signs  against  dangerous  conditions  and  the  feeling  of 
effort  or  inhibition  which  is  present  when  we  keep  some  thought 
or  feeling  down.  In  their  play,  I  said  a  moment  ago,  children  so 
manipulate  their  environment  as  to  get  such  feelings  out  of  it  as 
do  not  bring  painful  consequences  or  the  need  of  hateful  inhibition 
and  effort.  The  feelings  brought  by  play,  then,  differ  from  those  of 
serious  life  by  virtue  of  what  they  are  not  —  by  virtue  of  the  pain 
and  effort  they  do  not  arouse.  Here  we  have  our  fundamental  dis- 
tinction between  the  pseudo  and  the  real  emotions.  The  former 
differ  from  the  latter  by  virtue  of  what  they  are  not,  by  being 
responses  to  stimuli  which  the  wisdom  of  long  literary  effort  has 
devised  to  arouse  feelings  minus  certain  undesirable  elements.  Just 
as  the  child  finds  the  acts  and  ideas  that  excite  without  frighten- 
ing or  stimulate  without  effort,  so  the  tribe  of  writers  have  found 
means  of  presentation  which  filter  off  the  joy  of  conflict  from  its 
tremors,  the  sweet  of  sympathy  from  the  bitter,  the  thrills  of  am- 
bition from  its  strife  and  worry,  the  zest  of  interest  from  its  strain 
and  effort. 

Function  of  pseudo-emotions  to  give  innocent  pleasure.  —  From 
the  nature  and  genesis  of  these  pseudo-emotions  we  may  now  hope 
to  learn  their  function.  Except  by  special  dispensation  they  do  not 
serve  to  purify  the  mind  of  their  real  parallels.  There  is  no  reason 
why  they  should  and  no  evidence  that  they  do.  Nor  do  they  serve 
to  predispose  the  mind  to  their  real  parallels.  It  does  not  make 
children  feel  real  lonesomeness  to  read  "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  nor 
real  blood thirstiness  to  read  "  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans."  We 
know  well  enough  how  the  quietest  people  can  revel  in  the  pages 
of  romance.  When  a  child's  emotional  make-up  is  changed  by  the 
books  he  reads,  it  is  the  real  emotions,  or,  more  often  still,  the  ideas 
aroused,  that  do  the  work.  The  function  of  the  pseudo-emotions  is 
simply  to  give  innocent  pleasure  and  to  be  symptoms  that  the  mind 
is  at  least  healthy  enough  to  enjoy  unimpeded  action.  With  our 
pseudo-emotions  from  novels  and  dramas  we  play  at  love  or  war 
as  our  children  play  at  keeping  store  or  hunting  bears. 


250  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Play  on,  children  of  all  ages,  says  the  wise  man.  Only  do  not 
imagine  that  you  are  saving  your  souls  or  remodeling  your  minds 
by  the  game.  Play  on,  you  who  are  champions,  professionals,  who 
turn  play  to  a  trade  and  live  by  your  skill  at  it,  who  write  essays 
telling  how  you  feel  as  you  play  so  that  others  may  emulate  you. 
Play  on,  but  do  not  despise  the  workers  in  this  world.  (3  :  195-200) 

In  further  discussion  of  some  of  the  points  made  in  the 
above  quotation  the  following  comments  may  assist  us  in 
clear  thinking  about  training  for  enjoyment. 

No  necessary  connection  between  good  art  and  good  moral- 
ity. —  The  first  point  to  notice  is  suggested  by  the  last  para- 
graph in  the  quotation,  namely,  that  there  is  no  necessary 
connection  between  good  or  high  art  and  good  moral  be- 
havior. History  furnishes  any  number  of  examples  in  which 
periods  of  the  highest  development  of  artistic  activity  have 
been  characterized  by  the  greatest  moral  degradation.  Among 
the  best  examples  are  certain  periods  in  Greek  history,  and  life 
in  the  Italian  cities  during  the  Renaissance.  Comparing  these, 
J.  P.  Mahaffy  says  : 

We  can  quite  imagine  that,  had  the  mere  masterpieces  of  Italian 
art  and  literature  survived  to  us  from  the  Middle  Ages,  —  had  we 
lost  the  endless  chronicles  and  acts  and  letters  which  admit  us  to  the 
secrets  of  the  age  and  disclose,  in  all  their  nakedness,  the  burning 
passions  and  the  dark  vices  of  artists  and  kings  and  bishops,  —  we 
might  have  formed  a  very  different  and  a  very  false  idea  of  the 
brilliant  Italian  republics,  which  supply  the  only  real  analogy  to  the 
Greek  states  of  classical  days.  We  can  imagine  the  admirers  of 
their  noble  pictures  and  churches,  of  their  splendid  costumes  and 
pageants,  of  their  great  patriotism  and  valor,  of  their  refined  chivalry, 
to  have  scouted  any  stray  suspicions  as  to  their  darker  features. 
The  Madonnas  and  other  saints  would  be  taken  as  the  ordinary 
type  of  their  women ;  the  apostles  and  martyrs,  of  their  men ; 
and  they  would  be  reported  a  people  of  such  universal  beauty  that 
ugliness  was  quite  an  exception.  The  diffusion  of  their  art  through 
so  many  cities  would  prove  that  they  were  all  trained  in  the  fine 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          251 

arts  and  skillful  judges  of  artistic  excellence.  Their  piety  would  be  a 
national  feature  ;  their  poetic  and  chivalrous  love  would  be  national 
also  —  in  fact,  we  might  have  a  picture  very  like  the  ordinary 
notions  about  the  Greeks,  with  the  addition  of  some  splendid  fea- 
tures resulting  from  a  higher  and  purer  faith.  And  these  would 
probably  compensate  for  the  undeniable  inferiority  of  their  art  to 
that  of  the  Greeks. 

Yet  all  this  picture  would  be,  as  we  know,  historically  false. 
The  Italian  republics  were  torn  with  wild  and  savage  passions; 
their  citizens  were  violent  and  lawless,  grossly  immoral  in  their 
lives,  and  reckless  in  their  actions.  Their  despots  were  cruel  and 
inhuman  beyond  all  decent  description,  and  the  Christian  faith 
which  they  professed  had  no  more  influence  on  their  lives  than 
the  moral  lessons  of  the  old  philosophers  and  poets  upon  the 
Greeks  —  nay,  rather,  the  possibility  of  deathbed  absolution  may 
have  acted  as  a  release  from  all  moral  obligation  during  active  life. 

Nevertheless,  these  peoples'  art  was  splendid ;  their  aesthetic 
sense  was  not  dimmed  by  their  crimes,  and  even  the  most  aban- 
doned of  them  have  about  them  something  truly  and  justly  fasci- 
nating. And  again,  their  pure  and  saintly  men  stand  out  in  strange 
and  splendid  relief.  We  thus  come  to  see  how  great  intellectual 
and  artistic  excellence  is  compatible  with  great  moral  faults,  with 
vice,  and  with  meanness.  We  come  to  see  that  ideal  conception 
and  perfect  execution  imply  lofty  genius  and  patient  diligence,  but 
do  not  imply  in  the  appreciative  spectator  either  of  these  qualities, 
and  in  the  artist  no  moral  counterparts.  But  we  may  also  learn 
how  the  artist,  or  the  school  and  succession  of  artists,  may  always 
be  the  few,  the  exceptional,  and  the  isolated  among  the  crowd,  and 
how  their  great  works  may  vaguely  educate  the  judgment  of  the 
masses  without  affecting  their  principles.  (2  :  485-486) 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Puritans  who  commonly  looked 
upon  all  aesthetic  enjoyment  as  reprehensible,  were  most 
austere  in  their  morality.  Hence,  as  Thorndike  suggests, 
there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  the  contemplative 
play  of  the  enjoyer  of  artistic  productions  and  the  desire 
and  endeavor  to  work  for  the  common  good  which  we  know 
as  morality. 


252  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Moral  or  immoral  themes  may  be  effectively  presented  by 
artists. — Although  the  enjoyment  of  art  may  not  be  an 
effective  moral  agent  in  itself,  the  artistic  presentation  of 
moral  ideas  may  be  very  effective.  An  artistic  writer  or 
actor  is  a  master  of  a  given  form  of  expression.  Obviously, 
if  he  chooses  to  express  moral  ideas,  his  appeal  ought  to  be 
more  impressive  and  suggestive  than  an  appeal  made  by  a 
person  who  is  not  a  master  of  the  form  of  expression  used. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  skilled  writer  or  actor  might  choose 
to  express  immoral  ideas,  and  in  this  case  the  appeal  might 
possess  just  as  strong  a  suggestive  power.  Naturally,  in  our 
efforts  to  convey  moral  suggestions  in  the  school,  we  will 
try  to  secure  effective  artistic  expressions  of  moral  ideas  and 
avoid  effective  artistic  expressions  of  immoral  suggestions. 

Simple  forms  of  (Esthetic  enjoyment  as  "good"  as  enjoy- 
ing technique.  —  In  view  of  the  preceding  discussion  it  is 
clear  that  the  more  primitive  forms  of  enjoyment  of  rhythm, 
rime,  melody,  color,  story,  action,  and  humor  are  just  as 
good  or  respectable  as  the  enjoyment  of  workmanship,  tech- 
nique, or  expertness  such  as  are  involved  in  a  contemplation 
or  study  of  structure,  composition,  meter,  choice  of  words, 
figures  of  speech,  technical  analysis.  Thorndike  dismisses 
the  discussions  of  these  forms  of  enjoyment  with  the  single 
statement  that  "  the  enjoyment  of  workmanship  is  so  rare 
among  young  students  that  nothing  need  here  be  said  of  it." 
Yet,  this  enjoyment  of  workmanship  is  often  the  most 
emphasized  element  in  courses  in  the  study  of  literature, 
drama,  and  music.  It  is  doubtful  whether  many  adults,  even 
those  who  are  well  educated,  develop  much  of  it.  This  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  vigorous  applause  at  classical  concerts 
when  there  is  hope  for  a  melodious  popular  encore.  The 
greater  thunderous  applause  that  follows  the  encore  is  usually 
clear  indication  that  the  applause  for  the  main  selection  was 
inspired  by  hope  of  what  was  to  come.  Just  as  clearly  de- 
fined rhythm,  simple  melody  and  harmony,  and  beauty  of 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          253 

tone  constitute  the  chief  factors  in  the  musical  enjoyment 
of  most  persons,  so  rhythm,  rime,  and  a  "  good  story " 
constitute  the  basis  of  most  enjoyment  of  poetry,  a  "  good 
story  "  and  humor,  of  the  enjoyment  of  prose,  and  action  and 
humor,  of  the  enjoyment  of  the  drama.  As  far  as  all  moral 
consequences  are  concerned,  it  is  just  as  good  to  enjoy  Sousa's 
band  as  to  enjoy  a  symphony  orchestra  or  a  Wagnerian 
opera  ;  it  is  just  as  good  to  enjoy  a  farce-comedy  that  contains 
no  vulgar  suggestions  as  it  is  to  enjoy  a  Shakespearean 
tragedy ;  it  is  just  as  good  to  enjoy  Jack  London's  "  Burning 
Daylight "  or  most  of  the  stories  in  the  Saturday  Evening 
Post  as  it  is  to  enjoy  Thackeray  or  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

Study  of  literature.  Introduced  in  high  school  from  classi- 
cal standpoint.  —  The  preceding  paragraphs  presented  the 
fundamental  point  of  view  upon  which  the  discussion  of  the 
development  of  habits  of  enjoying  literature  will  be  based. 
A  brief  historical  comment  will  further  assist  us  in  getting 
a  proper  background  for  the  discussion,  since  the  study  of 
English  literature  is  a  relatively  recent  development  in  high 
schools.  One  of  the  best  means  of  securing  an  understanding 
of  this  fact  is  to  read  the  paper  entitled  "  What  is  a  Liberal 
Education?"  published  by  President  C.  W.  Eliot,  of  Har- 
vard University,  in  the  Century  Magazine,  in  June,  1884. 
(See  also  his  "Educational  Reform,"  1898,  pp.  97-101.) 
In  this  essay  he  points  out  that  many  high  schools  gave  no 
training  at  that  time  in  reading  English  literature,  and  the 
rest  gave  little  attention  to  it.  He  argued  that  it  should  be 
taught  as  a  serious  object  of  study  and  as  constituting  one  of 
the  most  important  subjects  in  a  liberal  education. 

As  a  result  of  such  views  as  this  the  New  England  Com- 
mission on  College-Entrance  Requirements  originated  in  1888 
the  idea  of  a  prescribed  list  of  books  to  be  read  in  high  schools. 
The  idea  was  adopted  by  other  organizations  —  for  example, 
by  the  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion in  1892.  The  practices  that  developed  under  this  system 


254  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

in  the  teaching  of  high-school  literature  are  still  in  vogue  in 
many  places  and  are  familiar  to  all  who  have  attended  high 
schools  since  1895.  The  practice  has  consisted  of  an  intensive 
analytical  study  of  a  few  books  in  class,  with  additional  read- 
ing of  other  books  outside.  The  books  selected  consisted  of 
classics  which  were  chosen  because  of  their  superior  literary 
qualities  or  their  importance  in  the  history  of  English  literature. 

English  teachers  rapidly  adapting  methods  to  social  needs. 
-We  have  already  described  at  some  length  the  rapid  de- 
velopment in  recent  years  of  the  general  tendency  to  con- 
sider high-school  education  in  terms  of  the  needs,  interests, 
and  capacities  of  high-school  students  and  in  terms  of  rather 
direct  training  for  participation  in  the  various  types  of  social 
activities  found  in  the  communities  which  the  high  schools 
serve  (see  pp.  60  and  78).  This  general  movement  is  affect- 
ing the  teaching  of  English  as  it  is  the  teaching  of  all  other 
subjects.  The  best  expression  of  this  influence  is  found  in 
the  activities  of  the  National  Council  of  English  Teachers 
and  its  official  organ  of  publication,  The  English  Journal, 
the  first  volume  of  which  was  issued  during  1912.  For  an 
outline  of  the  history  of  this  movement,  with  a  select  bibli- 
ography, see  pages  95—121  of  the  first  volume  of  the  Journal. 
So  active  is  the  progress  of  this  reform  movement  in  the 
teaching  of  English,  and  so  radical  are  its  measures,  that 
many  of  the  plans  and  discussions  which  were  prepared 
during  the  period  of  the  dominance  of  college-entrance  re- 
quirements are  of  little  use  at  the  present  time.  Hence,  in 
presenting"  this  phase  of  the  subject  I  shall  quote  at  length 
from  descriptions  of  actual  experiments  in  teaching  literature 
that  have  been  undertaken  in  recent  years.  The  first  point 
to  be  considered  is  training  in  the  reading  of  fiction. 

Training  to  read  harmless  fiction  is  of  first  importance. — 
With  the  exception  of  the  reading  of  the  daily  newspaper  by 
adults,  the  reading  of  contemporary  fiction  will  probably  con- 
stitute the  largest  part  of  the  reading  done  for  recreation  by 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          255 

most  children  and  adults.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  obvious 
that  training  which  aims  to  establish  correct  habits  in  select- 
ing and  reading  current  fiction  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
important  duties  of  the  school. 

One  of  the  most  important  services  the  high  school  can 
perform  is  to  introduce  students  to  the  writers  of  the  best 
current  fiction  who  will  continue  to  be  producers  of  such 
literature  for  five  or  ten  years  after  the  stiidents  in  question 
have  graduated  from  high  school.  If  students  are  thus  started 
to  read  worthy  books  by  active  contemporary  authors  while 
in  school,  they  will  be  given  a  basis  for  selecting,  from  the 
overwhelming  mass  of  new  fiction  which  is  being  printed, 
those  works  which  are  admitted  by  many  competent  judges 
to  be  as  good  as  any  English  fiction  which  was  written  in  the 
past.  Progressive  teachers  of  English  are  interested  in  pre- 
paring reading  lists  which  include  such  contemporary  fiction 
to  serve  as  guides  to  high-school  students.  One  of  the  best- 
known  lists  is  that  prepared  by  a  committee  of  the  National 
Council  of  English  Teachers,  which  can  be  purchased  for  ten 
cents  from  the  secretary  of  the  Council.  (See  16  a.) 

The  problems  involved  in  teaching  fiction  have  been  well 
discussed  in  an  article  entitled  "  The  School  and  Current 
Fiction  "  (13).  The  author  faces  squarely  the  real  issue  pre- 
sented by  the  fact  that  one  hundred  thirty-seven  out  of  some 
two  hundred  boys  in  his  high-school  classes  were  regular 
readers  of  the  Saturday  Evening  Post  (which,  by  the  way, 
he  says  contains  much  good  literature)  and  that  the  Ladies' 
Home  Journal  and  the  Cosmopolitan  ranked  next  in  the  list 
of  magazines  read.  He  mentions  the  further  fact  that  many 
students  do  practically  no  reading  for  enjoyment.  In  sum- 
marizing his  discussion  of  methods  of  dealing  with  this  situ- 
ation in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  students  to  read  good  fiction 
and  to  forsake  what  he  calls  rubbish,  he  says  : 

In  order  to  enable  our  pupils  to  get  the  most  out  of  current 
fiction,  we  must  do  several  things.  First,  we  must  make  the  fiction 


256  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

that  we  teach  in  school  so  interesting  that  they  will  want  more. 
That  means  that  we  must  like  it  and  let  them  see  that  we  do.  Sec- 
ondly, we  must  read  a  good  deal  of  the  sort  of  current  fiction  that 
we  expect  them  to  read,  and  even  a  certain  part  of  what  we  want 
them  not  to  read.  Thirdly,  we  must  keep  before  them  a  list  of  books 
that  will  be  good  for  them.  And  we  must  not  patronizingly  recom- 
mend these  from  above.  We  must  say,  "  This  is  a  good  book ;  I 
have  enjoyed  it,  and  I  want  you  to  enjoy  it  too."  And  we  must 
let  some  of  the  boys  [and  girls]  tell  the  class  about  the  books  they 
have  read,  encouraging  them  to  speak  with  absolute  sincerity. 
We  must  work  at  the  level  of  those  we  teach.  One  cannot  do 
slumming  by  telephone. 

We  aim  to  teach  our  students  to  share  our  pleasures.  We  must, 
then,  begin  by  sharing  with  them  those  in  which  our  pupils  are  fitted 
to  share.  We  must  show  them  what  we  get  out  of  books.  We  must 
help  them  to  find  the  best  books.  It  is  no  use  forbidding  the  half 
good.  We  must  praise  it  and  lead  on  from  it,  up  to  the  wholly  good, 
to  the  real  uplands  of  literature.  These,  some  of  us  feel,  rise  far 
higher  than  the  highest  fiction.  Be  that  as  it  may,  we  must  see  that 
our  pupils  get  the  good  that  fiction  has  to  offer  them.  For  in  this, 
I  repeat,  lies  the  justification  of  teaching  fiction.  We  are  not  teach- 
ing them  to  write  novels.  We  are  not  teaching  them  to  criticize 
novels.  We  are  not  even  qualifying  them  to  talk  about  novels. 
We  are  not  preparing  them  to  be  examined.  We  are  trying  to 
show  them  how  to  get  a  wholesome  pleasure  out  of  good  stories. 
We  are  trying  to  teach  them  to  see  through  the  eyes  of  great 
novelists  that  the  world  is  interesting  to  watch,  that  it  is  good  to 
live  in,  and  we  are  trying — this  is  our  topmost  endeavor — to  teach 
them  to  feel,  as  the  greatest  of  novelists  have  felt,  that  human  nature 
is  a  noble  thing,  that  through  all  the  confused  pattern  of  life  there 
runs  a  meaning  and  a  mystery.  No  student  whose  novel  reading 
leads  him  to  this  has  wasted  his  time.  (13  :  23) 

Training  to  read  magazines  especially  important.  —  An- 
other innovation  in  the  recent  reform  wave  for  developing 
harmless  habits  of  enjoyment  of  reading  is  the  organization 
of  systematic  courses  in  the  study  of  American  literature,  with 
special  provision  for  training  in  the  reading  of  the  better  grades 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          257 

of  magazines.    The  following  quotation  presents  part  of  the 
justification  for  such  training  in  reading  periodical  literature  : 

Such  a  study  can  be  made  a  profitable  adjunct  to  the  course  in 
American  literature.  Conditions  in  the  literary  life  of  America  cer- 
tainly justify  it,  for,  as  Professor  Barrett  Wendell  says,  "  the  illus- 
trated monthly  magazines  which  circulate  by  hundreds  of  thousands, 
and  go  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  provide  the  ordinary 
American  citizen  of  to-day  with  his  nearest  approach  to  literature." 
The  modem  magazine  does  indeed  dominate  the  literary  life  of 
the  average  American  to-day.  He  has  time  for  a  casual  glance  at 
the  daily  news  and  the  morning  editorial  at  his  breakfast  or  on  his 
way  to  business ;  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  can  be  spared  now  and 
then  in  the  evening  or  on  Sunday  or  a  holiday  for  a  short  story  or 
a  striking  article  in  some  monthly  or  weekly ;  but  he  has  neither 
time  nor  inclination  for  much  continuous  reading  of  longer  tales 
or  elaborated  treatises.  Besides,  the  cooperation  of  the  economic 
idea  of  division  of  labor  with  the  educational  ideal  of  specialization 
has  made  it  possible  for  the  magazine  to  furnish  an  intellectual  diet 
suited  to  all  tastes.  Moreover,  our  greatest  writers  of  short  stories 
and  poems  are  those  whose  work  has  appeared  or  is  still  appearing 
in  our  magazines.  Indeed,  the  history  of  the  American  magazine  is 
the  history  of  American  literature.  ...  As  Henry  Mills  Alden,  for 
forty  years  editor  of  Harper's  Magazine,  says  :  "  The  catholicity  of 
magazines  and  their  hospitality  to  young  writers  have  done  more 
than  all  other  influences  to  build  up  our  literature."  Many  of  the 
masterpieces  of  American  literature  first  found  a  reading  public 
through  the  magazine.  Bryant's  "  Thanatopsis  "  and  "  To  a  Water- 
fowl" appeared  in  the  North  American  Review \  Halleck's  "Marco 
Bozzaris  "  and  Bryant's  "  Death  of  the  Flowers  "  were  published 
in  the  New  York  Review ;  Poe's  "  Raven  "  was  first  published  in 
the  New  York  Mirror ;  Longfellow's  "  Psalm  of  Life  "  came  out 
in  the  Knickerbocker  Magazine ;  Holmes's  first  two  installments  of 
the  "  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table  "  were  published  in  the  New 
England  Magazine,  the  later  ones  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  ;  Whit- 
man's first  literary  success,  "  Death  in  a  School  Room,"  came  out 
in  the  Democratic  Review ;  Lowell's  first  series  of  Biglow  Papers 
was  published  in  the  Boston  Courier  •  Edward  Everett  Hale's 


258  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

"  The  Man  without  a  Country,"  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  •  and 
Howells's  "Venetian  Life,"  in  the  Boston  Advertiser;  and  these 
are  but  a  few  instances.  (20  :  357-361) 

For  the  method  of  conducting  the  class  work  and  arranging 
assignments  in  a  course  based  on  the  reading  of  contempo- 
rary magazines,  the  student  should  read  the  whole  article 
from  which  the  above  quotation  is  taken. 

Short,  serious  articles  on  current  events  read  for  recreation. 
—  In  connection  with  the  reading  of  magazines  for  purposes 
of  enjoyment  it  is  not  necessary  to  confine  one's  self  exclu- 
sively to  fiction.  Many  high-school  students  are  interested 
in  topics  of  the  day  and  would  do  more  or  less  reading  con- 
cerning them  if  properly  stimulated  and  encouraged.  By 
proceeding  from  the  news  items  and  cartoons  in  the  daily 
papers  to  news  summaries  and  cartoons  in  the  weekly 
reviews,  and  from  these  to  editorials  in  the  newspapers  and 
articles  of  similar  type  in  the  weekly  reviews  or  in  the 
magazines,  it  would  be  possible  to  initiate  habits  of  reading 
such  material.  As  with  adults,  the  initial  interest  is  always 
aroused  by  the  fact  that  something  of  general  human  inter- 
est is  taking  place.  Hence  the  simple  narrative  of  such 
an  event  is  usually  of  quite  general  interest,  and  by  skillful 
teaching  the  interest  can  be  carried  over  to  the  more  thought- 
ful discussions  of  current  events.  Certainly  many  adults  find 
their  daily  or  weekly  recreation  in  the  reading  of  such  material, 
and  many  of  the  questions  and  events  of  the  day  possess  in- 
terest and  educational  possibilities  for  adolescents. 

If  classics  are  taught,  correct  methods  should  be  used.  — 
After  we  have  considered  current  books  of  fiction  and  current 
newspapers,  reviews,  and  magazines,  with  their  installments 
of  fiction  and  their  discussions  of  the  vital  and  serious  prob- 
lems of  daily  life,  we  have  covered  practically  all  the  forms 
of  reading  for  recreation  which  will  play  any  considerable 
part  in  the  lives  of  the  adults  that  most  high-school  boys 
and  girls  will  become.  If  teachers  of  English  are  themselves 


acquainted  with  the  good  and  the  bad  in  current  books  and 
magazines,  and  are  skilled  teachers,  they  will  find  it  easier 
to  develop  habits  of  good  taste  and  refined  enjoyment  in 
reading  by  using  material  from  contemporary  social  life  than 
by  using  material  from  past  social  situations  which  are  rela- 
tively remote  from  the  interests  of  young  persons  of  to-day. 
If,  however,  it  is  considered  desirable  to  study  classics  which 
reflect  former  social  situations  or  which  may  be  considered 
good  stories  for  all  time,  certain  special  points  in  method 
should  be  kept  in  mind. 

Teacher  must  know  what  is  adapted  to  students.  —  The 
first  point  to  be  considered  is  the  adaptation  of  the  material 
to  the  interests  of  the  students.  The  importance  of  the 
teacher's  judgment  in  this  connection  is  emphasized  in  the 
following  statement  by  Professor  F.  T.  Baker : 

In  the  teaching  of  literature  we  are  to  assume  [in  the  teacher], 
as  I  have  already  said,  a  good  general  knowledge  of  real  literature, 
sound  taste,  and  openness  of  mind. 

But  knowing  literature  in  this  way  is  not  enough.  One  must 
come  to  know  what  it  may  mean,  or  may  be  made  to  mean,  to 
the  boy  and  girl  —  what  things  in  a  given  poem  or  story  or  drama 
may  have  interest  and  significance  to  an  immature  mind.  He  must 
know,  in  other  words,  the  points  of  contact  between  the  literature 
and  adolescent  minds.  If  the  main  interest  of  the  selection,  as  he 
sees  it,  is  beyond  the  reach  of  boys  and  girls,  he  had  better  pass 
the  selection  by.  Some  girls  will  get  the  quaint  humor  and  the 
gentle  pathos  of  "  Cranford " ;  most  boys  will  not.  The  self- 
questioning  of  George  Eliot's  heroines  is  too  analytic  and  too 
excessively  moral  for  boys  and  girls.  George  Eliot,  except  for 
"  Silas  Marner,"  belongs  to  the  college  age.  The  conceits  of  the 
Elizabethan  and  Cavalier  lyrics  presuppose  a  background  of  general 
reading  and  special  interests  which,  for  most  people,  postpones 
them  indefinitely.  (12  :  340) 

Satire  on  analytical  methods  with  classics.  — The  second 
point  to  notice,  if  teachers  expect  to  continue  to  teach  literary 


260  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

classics,  is  that  the  method  should  emphasize  the  obvious 
effects  which  the  author  intended  to  secure  in  his  writing, 
and  should  not  involve  a  detailed  analytical  study  of  his  de- 
vices for  securing  these  effects,  or  other  matters  of  technique. 
An  excellent  satire  on  the  current  analytical  and  technical 
methods  of  studying  literary  classics  is  the  following  quota- 
tion from  an  address  by  Professor  F.  N.  Scott.  In  it  he  de- 
scribes an  imaginary  experiment  in  teaching  English  literature 
to  a  sophomore  class  in  a  high  school  in  which  the  college- 
entrance  requirements  in  English  literature  had  been  abolished 
and  the  teachers  left  free  to  choose  any  books  to  be  read  by 
the  students.  He  proceeds  as  follows  : 

If  I  were  not  engaged  in  this  inferior  business  of  teaching  in 
a  university,  and  my  time  were  not  all  taken  up  with  it,  I  should 
like  to  go  into  a  high  school  where  these  formal  prescriptions  had 
been  put  aside  and  take  charge  of  a  class  in  English.  I  think  I 
should  talk  to  the  pupils  in  some  such  way  as  this : 

"  The  classes  of  former  years  have  been  reading  this  prescribed 
set  of  books  —  a  pretty  poor  sort  of  literature,  in  my  opinion,  and 
not  proper  for  young  people  to  read.  You  are  very  fortunate  in 
being  able  to  get  rid  of  them.  They  are  mostly  very  dull  and  un- 
interesting. There  is  the  Iliad,  for  example,  full  of  fighting  and 
blood  and  the  killing  of  men,  and  of  armies  clashing  with  one  an- 
other in  desperate  conflicts  where  all  the  elementary  and  violent 
human  passions  are  set  free.  Horrible !  The  International  Peace 
Society  cannot  approve  of  anything  of  that  sort.  We  will  put  this 
book  aside,  and  I  hope  none  of  you  will  touch  it.  Then  there  is 
the  '  Faerie  Queene,'  all  about  giants  and  maidens  in  distress,  magic 
and  mystery  of  all  sorts  —  perfectly  useless,  a  futile,  silly  thing, 
nearly  as  bad  as  the  Arabian  Nights.  Don't  go  near  it.  I  trust, 
also,  that  no  one  will  attempt  to  read  '  As  You  Like  It,'  which  has 
a  wrestling  match  in  the  very  beginning  (these  minor  athletics 
ought  not  to  be  allowed  in  literature)  and  tells  about  a  girl  who 
ran  off  into  the  forest  in  boy's  dress — a  most  improper  performance 
on  her  part.  I  am  sure  we  ought  not  to  talk  about  those  things 
in  this  class.  And  even  worse,  perhaps,  is  Tennyson's  '  Princess,' 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          261 

where  a  prince,  who  ought  to  know  better,  disguises  himself  in 
woman's  clothing  and  gains  admission  to  a  girls'  academy.  A 
scandalous  thing  1  No  gentleman  would  act  in  that  way.  In 
short,  these  books  are  all  harmful  and  ought  to  be  destroyed.  For 
the  present  I  will  put  them  on  the  top  shelf  of  the  closet  here,  and 
just  as  soon  as  the  janitor  is  at  liberty  we  will  have  them  burned. 

"And  now  we  are  going  to  take  up  some  books  which  I  know 
you  will  enjoy.  I  want  you  to  be  just  as  enthusiastic  as  you  can 
about  them,  for  we  are  going  to  study  them  and  study  them 
hard,  and  you  will  get  a  great  deal  of  profit  out  of  them,  and  all 
will  be  greatly  improved.  For  the  boys  we  will  take  Captain  Mayne 
Reid's  '  Afloat  in  a  Forest.'  We  are  going  to  read  that  book  a 
paragraph  at  a  time  and  examine  carefully  every  allusion  in  it. 
It  is  about  some  people  who  floated  down  the  river  Amazon. 
First  we  will  draw  a  map  of  South  America,  locating  the  course 
of  the  river,  and  then  we  will  ascertain  how  wide  the  Amazon  is 
at  various  points  and  how  fast  the  current  moves.  Finally  we  will 
determine  the  amount  of  silt  which  is  deposited  by  the  river  at  its 
mouth.  Captain  Mayne  Reid,  by  the  way,  makes  a  mistake.  He 
has  three  people  float  down  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  they 
possibly  could.  You  will  see  that  this  is  so  when  we  discover  the 
exact  relationship  between  the  flow  of  the  stream  and  their  rate  of 
progress.  We  shall  go  into  these  details  with  the  utmost  care,  and 
after  a  little  while  you  will  write  some  nice  little  essays  about  them. 

"  For  the  benefit  of  the  girls  we  will  read  in  the  same  careful  and 
scholarly  way  Robert  Chambers's  '  Heart  Throbs  of  a  Multimillion- 
aire.' We  will  determine  just  how  many  times  the  heart  throbs 
when  two  hearts  are  in  unison,  and  learn  about  the  two  kinds  of 
blood  corpuscles,  and  so  on,  and  there  will  be  essays  on  all  these 
things  also. 

"  But  this  is  not  all.  Two  years  from  now,  when  you  are  seniors, 
we  will  take  these  books  up  again  and  go  over  them  and  over  them 
and  over  them  until  you  know  the  answers  to  every  last  question 
in  regard  to  all  these  mathematical,  biological,  chemical,  and  topo- 
graphical things,  and  that  will  be  absolutely  delightful." 

I  think  we  can  all  prophesy  what  would  be  the  result  of  such 
an  experiment.  If  the  room  were  not  locked  or  the  closet  door 
locked,  after  two  or  three  weeks  those  classics  which  were  put  on 


262  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  top  shelf  would  have  to  be  rebound,  and  as  regards  the  other 
books,  when  their  very  names  were  mentioned,  I  think  the  pupils 
would  fly  shrieking.  They  would  never  want  to  see  the  "  Heart 
Throbs  of  a  Multimillionaire  "  again,  or  even  "Afloat  in  the  Forest," 
good  as  that  book  is.  (19  :  70-72) 

Two  lines  of  reading :  studying  and  enjoying,  —  Schools 
have  dealt  so  exclusively  with  subjects  in  which  intellectual 
processes,  such  as  reflective  thinking  or  acquiring  information, 
are  uppermost,  that  teachers  are  at  a  loss  to  know  what 
methods  to  use  when  the  responses  to  be  secured  are  pri- 
marily emotional.  Similarly,  they  are  at  a  loss  to  know  how 
to  proceed  to  develop  abiding  interests,  that  is,  habitual  tend- 
encies to  reach  out  after  more  experiences  along  certain  lines. 
Hence,  in  teaching  literature  they  apply  the  methods  that 
have  been  used  in  the  study  of  mathematics,  science,  gram- 
mar, history,  etc.,  with  the  result  that  they  develop  an  abiding 
distaste  for  literature  instead  of  an  abiding  interest  in  it.  An 
excellent  discussion  of  these  mistakes  in  method  is  found  in 
an  article  entitled  "  Two  Lines  of  High-School  Reading," 
which  teachers  of  literature  should  read.  (21  :  476-482) 

Difficult  to  avoid  snap  courses  in  reading  for  enjoyment.  — 
Closely  related  to  the  difficulty  that  we  have  been  discussing 
is  the  fear  that  a  course  intended  to  develop  habits  of  en- 
joyment will  become  a  snap.  This  means  either  that  the 
students  will  not  have  to  dig  and  grind  to  overcome  difficul- 
ties or  that  they  will  not  do  the  outside  reading  which  is 
required.  The  first  of  these  meanings  need  not  concern  us, 
since  persons  are  not  supposed  to  dig  and  grind  to  enjoy 
artistic  productions.  The  second  danger,  namely,  that  stu- 
dents will  not  do  the  outside  reading,  is  difficult  to  meet. 
As  a  first  step,  however,  the  list  of  readings  can  be  made  up 
of  such  interesting  books  that  students  will  wish  to  read  them. 
Secondly,  the  readings  can  be  discussed  in  class  in  an  in- 
formal way,  so  as  to  secure  an  indirect  check  upon  the  reading 
done  by  the  students. 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          263 

Spontaneous  evahiations  by  students  start  discussions.  — 
If  the  books  to  be  read  are  within  the  range  of  the  interests 
and  understanding  of  the  students,  they  will  call  forth  a 
wealth  of  responses,  comments,  and  evaluations  from  the 
students  themselves.  These  can  be  made  the  starting  point 
for  class  discussions  which  will  bring  out  all  the  fundamental 
effects  that  the  author  expected  readers  to  get.  For  the  most 
part  these  discussions  will  not  be  concerned  with  an  analysis 
of  the  tools  or  devices  that  the  author  has  used  to  secure 
his  effects.  Such  informal  teaching  requires  a  more  skilled 
teacher  than  does  teaching  based  upon  an  annotated  edition 
of  a  classic  accompanied  by  study  questions.  Hence,  in  high 
schools  in  which  teachers  are  expected  to  teach  literature 
who  have  no  adequate  preparation  for  it,  the  current  formal- 
ized method  will  probably  continue  in  use.  Teachers  who 
know  their  subject  matter  thoroughly,  however,  and  know 
boys  and  girls  as  well,  ought  to  succeed  with  the  informal 
method  recommended  above. 

Enjoyment  of  drama.  Prominent  in  social  life.  —  Up  to 
this  point  in  the  chapter  we  have  considered  the  following 
sources  of  enjoyment :  (i)  participation  in  sports  and  games, 

(2)  social  activities  in  the  form  of  clubs,  parties,  and  dances, 

(3)  music,  and  (4)  reading.     The  last  source  that  we  shall 
consider  is  the  drama,  which,  in  the  cities,  plays  a  very  large 
part  in  the  recreation  of  many  persons  and  has  always  been 
an  important  factor  in  general  recreation.    Its  influence  in  this 
connection  was  strikingly  presented  by  Friedrich  von  Schiller 
(1759-1805),  the  great  German  poet,  in  an  essay  entitled 
"  The  Stage  as  a  Moral  Institution,"  published  about  1795. 
After  discussing  the  advantages  of  the  drama  from  various 
points  of  view  he  says : 

Another  advantage  belongs  to  the  stage  —  one  which  seems  to 
have  become  acknowledged  even  by  its  censurers.  Its  influence  on 
intellectual  and  moral  culture,  which  we  have  till  now  been  advo- 
cating, may  be  doubted,  but  its  very  enemies  have  admitted  that 


264  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

it  has  gained  the  palm  over  all  other  means  of  amusement.  It  has 
been  of  much  higher  service  here  than  people  are  often  ready 
to  allow. 

Human  nature  cannot  bear  to  be  always  on  the  rack  of  business, 
and  the  charms  of  sense  die  out  with  their  gratification.  Man, 
oppressed  by  appetites,  weary  of  long  exertion,  thirsts  for  refined 
pleasure  or  rushes  into  dissipations  that  hasten  his  fall  and  ruin 
and  disturb  social  order.  Bacchanal  joys,  gambling,  follies  of  all 
sorts,  .  .  .  are  unavoidable  if  the  lawgiver  provides  nothing  better. 
A  man  of  public  business,  who  has  made  noble  sacrifices  to  the 
state,  is  apt  to  pay  for  them  with  melancholy,  the  scholar  to  be- 
come a  pedant  and  the  people  brutish,  without  the  stage.  The 
stage  is  an  institution  combining  amusement  with  instruction,  rest 
with  exertion,  where  no  faculty  of  the  mind  is  overstrained,  no 
pleasure  enjoyed  at  the  cost  of  the  whole.  (18 :  338) 

Three  opportunities:  reading,  participating  in,  and  attend- 
ing plays.  —  In  providing  training  for  the  enjoyment  of  the 
drama  there  are  three  types  of  opportunity,  namely,  (i)  train- 
ing through  the  reading  of  plays,  (2)  training  through  par- 
ticipation in  amateur  dramatics,  and  (3)  training  through 
attendance  at  professional  performances. 

Expert  oral  reading  of  plays  should  replace  silent  reading. 
-The  first  of  these  forms  of  training,  namely,  reading 
plays,  is  the  one  most  commonly  emphasized  in  schools,  but 
the  one  that  possesses  the  least  chances  of  success.  Many 
teachers  seem  to  overlook  the  fact  that  plays  are  written  to 
be  acted  and  seen,  not  to  be  read  by  the  ordinary  reader.  It 
is  very  difficult  for  most  persons  to  get  the  intended  effects 
by  reading  a  play.  Even  very  well-trained  persons  often  fail, 
as  is  shown  by  a  recent  review  of  a  performance  of  Bernard 
Shaw's  "Press  Cuttings"  in  Chicago.  The  critic,  one  of  the 
best  known  in  Chicago,  stated  that  the  performance  was  a 
revelation  to  him,  since  he  had  not  felt  when  reading  the 
play  the  large  amount  of  humor  which  the  performance 
brought  out.  An  oral  presentation  or  reading  of  a  play  by 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          265 

a  skilled  reader  who  is  familiar  with  the  effects  and  values 
which  should  be  brought  out  is  superior  to  silent  reading  or 
study  and  offers  possibilities  in  many  centers  of  population 
where  good  performances  are  infrequent.  Even  a  fairly 
talented  and  well-educated  teacher,  by  careful  study  and 
preparation  of  a  few  plays,  might  develop  a  limited  reper- 
tory, which  could  be  used  effectively  with  classes  from  year 
to  year. 

Skilled  teachers  provide  educative  dramatization  by  stu- 
dents.—  The  second  form  of  training  for  the  enjoyment  of 
the  drama,  namely,  participation  in  amateur  dramatics,  is 
emphasized  in  many  schools  where  capable  teachers  are 
available.  Under  the  tutelage  of  well-trained  and  intelligent 
leaders,  simple,  unpretentious  plays  may  be  attempted  with 
students  of  all  ages,  and  an  interest  in  dramatic  performances 
gradually  built  up  that  will  result  in  habitual  good  taste  in 
choosing  plays  to  be  attended  outside  of  school.  An  example 
of  an  extended  experiment  in  training  children  along  these 
lines  is  described  by  Alice  M.  Herts  in  a  book  entitled 
"  The  Children's  Educational  Theatre,"  which  teachers  con- 
cerned in  instruction  in  dramatics  should  read. 

Attendance  on  modern  plays  shoidd  entertain  if  it  is  to 
instruct.  —  Training  through  attendance  upon  professional 
theatrical  performances  is  impossible  in  many  places,  owing 
to  lack  of  opportunity.  Moreover,  this  training  is  difficult  to 
organize  in  a  systematic  way  even  where  there  are  such  op- 
portunities. Many  skilled  teachers,  however,  take  advantage 
of  whatever  occasional  opportunities  are  afforded  and  utilize 
them  in  connection  with  the  instruction  in  literature. 

In  selecting  a  play  to  be  attended  the  first  point  to  con- 
sider is  whether  it  is  sure  to  be  entertaining.  This  point  is 
often  forgotten  by  persons  who  are  striving  to  achieve  some 
educational  purpose  through  the  theater.  In  the  statement 
by  Schiller  given  above  on  page  263  he  said  the  stage  com- 
bines amusement  with  instruction,  but  many  advocates  of  the 


266  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

uplift  drama  at  the  present  time  overlook  the  necessity  of 
amusement  altogether  and  simply  provide  instruction.  As 
a  consequence  they  fail  to  have  audiences  to  instruct. 

An  example  of  a  systematic  high-school  course  in  dramatic 
study  which  includes  attendance  upon  modern  plays  is  de- 
scribed in  the  English  Journal  for  February,  1913.  (10: 
93-98.)  While  the  experiment  is  somewhat  classical  in  its 
tendencies,  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  movement  in  the  right 
direction.  One  of  the  aims  of  the  course  is  stated  to  be  "  to 
approach  Shakespeare  and  other  classic  playwrights  through 
what  is  the  most  vital  thing  in  the  life  of  many  young  people 
to-day  —  the  stage;  and  to  guide  the  pupils'  theater-going 
and  form  their  taste  in  modern  plays  by  comparison  with 
those  that  have  become  classic." 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  forming  habits  of  enjoyment. — 
This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  formation  of  habits 
of  harmless  enjoyment.  We  have  tried  to  face  squarely  the 
issue  presented  by  the  fact  that,  as  people  secure  leisure 
time,  methods  of  enjoying  this  time  in  innocent  and  harmless 
ways  must  be  provided  by  society,  and  the  schools  must 
develop  habits  of  choosing  the  right  forms  of  enjoyment. 
In  order  to  avoid  confusing  the  issue  with  training  for  intel- 
lectual efficiency,  we  have  tried  to  make  it  clear  that  we  are 
not  here  concerned  with  appreciation  (whatever  that  may  be) 
or  understanding.  In  order  to  avoid  confusing  the  issue  with 
moral  training,  we  have  shown  that  many  forms  of  enjoy- 
ment are  almost  unmoral  in  quality ;  that  is,  they  bear  little 
or  no  relation  to  one's  desire  and  endeavor  to  work  for  the 
common  good. 

In  solving  the  problem  the  educator  must  first  study  the 
forms  of  enjoyment  which  we  find  practiced  by  ordinary 
well-behaved,  cultivated  people.  The  list  includes  sports  and 
games,  clubs  and  parties,  dancing,  music,  the  reading  of  fic- 
tion, magazines,  and  newspapers  (including  serious  articles 
concerning  questions  of  the  day),  theater-going,  and  some 


HABITS  OF  HARMLESS  ENJOYMENT          267 

other  types,  such  as  visits  to  art  galleries,  which  we  have 
not  considered  in  this  chapter. 

In  each  case  the  pedagogical  problem  is  to  adapt  the  school 
activities  in  these  lines  to  the  capacities  and  interests  of  stu- 
dents at  different  ages — to  begin  with  activities  and  materials 
which  they  enjoy,  and  gradually  develop,  from  these,  habits 
of  good  taste  and  refinement  which  may  persist  outside  of 
school.  During  the  last  few  years  vigorous  experimentation 
has  been  carried  on  to  determine  how  success  can  be  achieved. 
The  progressive  teacher  of  any  of  the  subjects  mentioned 
should  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  periodical  educational 
literature,  in  order  to  learn  what  progress  is  being  made. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL   NOTES 

General  discussions.  —  i.  CAREER,  J.  B.  Current  Educational 
Activities  for  igri.  (J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.)  Describes  recent 
movements  to  provide  public  recreation. 

2.  MAHAFFY,  J.  P.  Social  Life  in  Greece.    (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1898.)  Chaps,  xiv  and  xv,  especially  pp.  484-489,  on  relation  of 
Greek  art  to  Greek  morality. 

3.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    The  Esthetic  Emotions.    Teachers  College 
Record,  1901,  Vol.  II,  pp.  195-200.    Good  psychological  analysis. 

4.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seiler,  1905.) 
Pp.  189-205. 

Enjoyment  of  music.  —  5.  BOBBITT,  J.  F.  A  City  School  as  a  Com- 
munity Art  and  Musical  Center.  Elementary  School  Teacher,  Novenv 
ber,  1911,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  119-126.  Concrete  account  of  developments 
in  Richmond,  Indiana. 

6.  EARHART,  W.     The  Music   Supervisors'   High-School   Course. 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association,  1912,  pp.  1004- 
1009.    By  the  organizer  of  the  Richmond  experiment. 

7.  FARNSWORTH,  C.  H.    Music  in  the  High  School,  in  C.  H.  John- 
ston's High-School  Education.   (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1912.)   Pp. 
3 *  7-33 J  •    Probably  the  best  summary  discussion. 

8.  LUTKIN,    P.    C.     Musical    Appreciation  —  How    it    is     Devel- 
oped.    Proceedings  of  the   National  Education   Association,    1912, 
pp.  1009-1013. 


268  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Enjoyment  of  literature  and  the  drama. — 9.  ABBOTT,  A.  A  High- 
School  Course  in  Periodical  Literature.  English  Journal,  September, 
1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  422-427. 

10.  ABBOTT,  A.  A  High-School  Course  in  Drama.  English  Journal, 
February,  1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  93-98. 

1 1 .  ANDERSON,  R.  E.  A  Preliminary  Study  of  the  Reading  Taste 
of    High-School    Pupils.     Pedagogical   Seminary,    December,    1912, 
Vol.  XIX,   pp.  438-460. 

1 2.  BAKER,  F.  T.  The  Teacher  of  English.  English  Journal,  June, 
1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  335-343- 

13.  BATES,  H.   The  School  and  Current  Fiction.  English  Journal, 
January,  1912,  Vol.  I,  pp.  15-23. 

14.  CHUBB,  P.  The  Menace  of  Pedantry  in  the  Teaching  of  English. 
School  Review,  January,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  34-45. 

15.  ELIOT,  C.  W.  Educational  Reform.  (The  Century  Company, 
1898.)  Pp.  97-101.    An  argument  for  the  introduction  of  literature  into 
high  schools ;  written  in  1 884. 

1 6.  English  Journal,  the  official  organ  of  the  National  Council  of 
English  Teachers.  Edited  by  J.  F.  Hosic;  published  by  The  University 
of  Chicago  Press.    Vol.  I,  1912.    Every  English  teacher  should  read  it 
regularly. 

\6a.  National  Council  of  English  Teachers.  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee upon  Home  Reading  (1913)  may  be  secured  from  the  Secretary, 
68th  St.  and  Stewart  Ave.,  Chicago,  111.  Price  10  cents. 

17.  HERTS,    ALICE    M.    The    Children's    Educational    Theatre. 
(Harper  &  Brothers,  1911.) 

1 8.  SCHILLER,  F.   Essays  ^Esthetical  and  Philosophical.   (G.  Bell 
&  Co.,  London,  1905.)    See  pp.  333-339  concerning  the  stage. 

19.  SCOTT,  F.  N.    Discussion  of  High-School  English  uninfluenced 
by  College-Entrance  Requirements.    Proceedings  of  the  North  Central 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  1912,  pp.  67-72. 

20.  SIMONS,  SARAH  E.  American  Literature  and  the  Modern  Maga- 
zine in  High  School.  English  Journal,  June,  1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  357-361. 

21.  TERRY,  H.  L.    Two  Lines  of  High-School  Reading.    School 
Review,  September,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  476-482. 

22.  THOMPSON,    GRACE.    High-School    Reading:    Newark    Plan. 
School  Review,  March,  1913,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  187-190. 

23.  WALLACE,  J.  A.    A  Plan  for  Outside  Reading.  School  Review, 
September,  1913,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  478-485. 

Exercises  and  additional  bibliography.  —  See  Exercises  for" 'Meth- 
ods of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,'"1  pp.  E 1 1 7-E 140. 


CHAPTER  XI 
TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  Oral  and  written  expression 
concerning  vital  daily  issues  is  of  great  social  importance. 

2.  The  first  essential  in  training  in  expression  is  to  make  sure 
that  the  students  have  real  content  to  express.    Such  content  can 
be  best  secured  from  the  content  subjects  or  from  the  vocational 
and  leisure  interests  of  the  students. 

3.  The  second  essential  is  to  provide  motive  for   expression 
through  the  creation  of  real  audience  situations. 

4.  The  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  specific  assignments  or 
topics  for  expression  is  to  assure  clear  thinking  by  the  student. 
This  is  stimulated  by  requiring  all  material  to  be  organized  in  the 
form  of  briefs. 

5.  The  endeavor  of  the  student  to  organize  his  presentation 
from  the  point  of  view  of  his  audience  will  furnish  a  concrete 
basis  for  making  the  presentation  clear,  interesting,  and  impres- 
sive, and  for  using  correct  forms  of  expression. 

6.  The  instruction  in  oral  expression  should  be  organized  so  as 
to  include  definite  intellectual  content,  in  order  to  require  serious 
preparation  by  the  students  and  to  avoid  waste  of  time  in  class. 
It  is  probably  best  to  combine  it  with  training  in  written  composition. 

7.  The  general  principles  of  practice  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII 
should  be  applied  to  training  in  expression. 

8.  Contribution   recitations  in  all  content   subjects,  based  on 
carefully  prepared  briefs,  provide  the  best  training  in  expression 
and  do  not  require  technical  English  training  of  the  teachers. 

9.  The  more  formal  aspects  of  English  training  should  also  be 
organized  cooperatively  between  the  department  of  English  and 
other  departments. 

10.  The  general  principles  of  training  in  expression  apply  to  the 
teaching  of  drawing  as  a  means  of  expression. 

269 


270  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

An  important  issue  in  all  classes.  —  In  this  chapter  we 
shall  take  up  the  fifth  and  last  type  of  learning  that  is  to  be 
considered,  namely,  training  in  expression.  The  other  types 
which  we  have  discussed  have  been  the  following  :  (i)  ac- 
quiring motor  skill,  (2)  associating  symbols  and  meanings, 
(3)  reflective  thinking,  and  (4)  acquiring  habits  of  enjoy- 
ment. These  types  of  learning  are  not  entirely  unlike  each 
other,  and  from  the  psychological  standpoint  the  separation 
which  we  have  made  may  be  unwise.  From  the  practical 
pedagogical  standpoint,  however,  each  type  that  we  have 
distinguished  serves  as  a  useful  basis  for  discussing  methods 
of  teaching  which  are  especially  appropriate  in  certain  sub- 
jects. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  type  of  learning  that  is 
to  be  discussed  in  this  chapter,  namely,  expression.  This 
type  is  especially  important  in  the  teaching  of  oral  and 
written  composition  in  high  schools,  and  in  some  other  sub- 
jects, such  as  drawing  and  painting.  The  psychological  prin- 
ciples involved  are  primarily  those  of  habit  formation,  which 
we  have  considered  several  times  in  connection  with  the  other 
types  of  learning,  but  their  application  to  training  in  expres- 
sion raises  many  special  pedagogical  questions.  Apparently 
this  chapter  should  be  of  special  interest  only  to  teachers 
of  English  composition,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  unless  the 
principles  set  forth  are  applied  by  all  teachers  in  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  opportunities  for  training  in  expression  which 
are  offered  by  all  subjects,  the  results  of  such  training  will 
continue  to  be  quite  unsatisfactory. 

Verbal  expression  more  important  than  other  forms  of  ex- 
pression. —  Of  the  various  forms  of  expression,  verbal  expres- 
sion is  the  most  important.  This  becomes  evident  when  we 
consider  the  large  part  which  it  plays  in  social  life,  where 
communication  through  speech  and  writing  becomes  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  activities  of  nearly  all  people.  The  use 
of  other  forms  of  expression  is  relatively  infrequent ;  for  ex- 
ample, drawing,  painting,  and  modeling  are  used,  as  a  rule, 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  2/1 

only  by  certain  specialized  groups  of  people.  Exception  might 
be  made  of  rough  sketching  and  mechanical  drawing,  which 
are  used  by  a  large  number  of  artisans  and  scientists. 

Oral  expression  is  as  important  as  written  expression.  — 
When  we  consider  the  relative  importance  of  oral  expression 
and  of  written  expression  in  ordinary  social  intercourse,  it  is 
evident  that  the  former  has  been  relatively  neglected  in  favor 
of  written  composition  in  high-school  instruction.  Most  per- 
sons employ  oral  expression  for  conveying  ideas  much  more 
frequently  than  they  do  written  expression.  Examples  are 
easily  found  in  the  activities  of  business  and  the  professions, 
notably  in  selling  and  in  school-teaching.  In  business  life 
the  dictating  of  letters  makes  training  in  oral  expression  par- 
ticularly important.  Hence  such  training  should  be  given 
larger  emphasis  in  the  schools.  On  the  other  hand  elocu- 
tionary training  is  relatively  unimportant  when  judged  by  the 
part  which  it  plays  in  the  lives  of  most  persons. 

Emphasize  expression  of  everyday  matters.  —  In  training 
in  expression,  the  types  of  writing  and  speaking  in  which 
training  is  provided  should  be  emphasized  roughly  in  pro- 
portion to  the  extent  to  which  each  type  is  likely  to  play  a 
part  in  the  lives  of  the  students  who  are  being  trained.  If 
this  is  done,  there  will  be  relatively  little  endeavor  made  to 
train  students  to  write  novels  or  literary  essays  or  criticisms 
and  to  deliver  orations,  but  much  emphasis  will  be  placed 
upon  the  discussion,  description,  and  explanation  of  everyday 
matters.  This  point  of  view,  as  far  as  it  concerns  written  com- 
position, is  well  set  forth  in  an  article  entitled  "  The  Vital  in 
Teaching  English,"  as  follows  : 

In  every  hundred  of  our  pupils  perhaps  two  will  be  professional 
writers  doing  newspaper  or  hack  work ;  the  percentage  of  writers 
of  literature  is  inconsiderable,  of  course.  Perhaps  ten  in  a  hundred 
will  have  occasion  a  few  times  in  their  lives  to  write  for  publication : 
a  doctor  or  a  scientist  may  publish  a  discovery  or  a  report,  a  lawyer 
may  find  it  desirable  to  present  a  plea  to  the  public,  and  a  minister 


272  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

may  publish  a  volume  of  sermons.  .  .  .  About  forty  in  a  hundred 
will  write  papers  for  missionary  meetings  or  women's  clubs,  or  re- 
ports for  stockholders'  meetings  or  governing  bodies.  The  rest  of 
the  hundred,  practically  one-half  the  whole  number,  will  write  only 
letters,  telling  about  Johnnie's  mumps,  or  asking  about  Aunt  Maria's 
new  bonnet,  or  promising  the  shipment  of  certain  goods,  or  fixing  a 
price,  or  arranging  a  contract.  If  these  statements  seem  to  belittle 
our  profession,  ask  yourself  whether  they  are  not  true,  and  then 
be  thoughtful  and  frank  in  your  answer.  I  am  not  even  belittling 
the  importance  of  the  letters  that  these  people  are  to  write,  but  I 
do  wish  to  consider  what  are  their  needs  in  connection  with  the 
facts.  Neither  am  I  condemning  these  people  to  what  you  may 
call  a  narrow  sphere.  I  am  only  saying  that  nature  has  made  them 
that  way,  and  though  I  cannot  necessarily  pick  out  the  individual 
members  of  each  class,  the  life  around  us  shows  that  the  facts  will 
be  those  that  I  have  indicated.  Of  course,  we  shall  all  agree  that 
we  cannot  make  writers  of  literature  of  any  considerable  percent- 
age of  our  pupils.  A  writer  of  literature  is  always  a  poet,  at  heart, 
and  the  origin  of  poets  is  not  now  disputed.  Yet  I  fear  the  as- 
sumption of  a  great  deal  of  teaching  of  English  has  been  that  writers 
of  literature  could  be  made.  (8 :  469-483) 

The  point  made  in  the  preceding  paragraph  is  simply  a 
special  application  of  the  general  point  concerning  the  adap- 
tation of  subject  matter  to  varying  social  needs,  which  was 
discussed  above  on  pages  60-67.  As  pointed  out  on  page  66, 
even  more  specific  adaptations  should  also  be  made  to  the 
needs  of  the  different  types  of  students  found  in  high  schools 
in  organizing  the  work  in  English  composition. 

Make  sure  that  students  have  vital  content  to  express.  — 
The  first  factor  to  be  considered  in  the  organization  of  the 
actual  instruction  in  oral  or  written  composition  is  to  make 
sure  that  the  students  have  something  to  express.  If  this 
condition  is  lacking,  no  progress  can  be  made.  This  fact 
seems  so  self-evident  that  it  is  surprising  that  it  should  ever 
be  disregarded  ;  yet  the  topics  for  composition  in  some  of  the 
old-fashioned  rhetoric  books  indicate  that  the  authors  did 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  273 

not  concern  themselves  at  all  with  what  students  had  to  say, 
but  chose  their  topics  on  the  basis  of  the  current  interests  of 
educated  adults  or  what  seemed  to  be  appropriate  topics  for 
literary  efforts. 

Recent  examples  of  topics  from  students'  interests. — A  list 
of  theme  topics  derived  from  the  present-day  interests  of  high- 
school  students  is  found  in  an  article  entitled  "Discovering 
Human  Interests,"  written  in  1913.  The  author  describes  a 
plan  which  he  uses  for  training  in  oral  composition.  Each 
student  is  expected  to  speak  for  several  minutes  upon  a  topic 
of  special  interest  to  himself  and  upon  which  he  has  made 
special  preparation.  He  may  specialize  on  a  single  topic  or 
line  of  topics  for  several  talks.  The  following  are  among  the 
topics  discussed,  as  reported  by  the  class  secretaries. 

SECOND-SEMESTER  STUDENTS 

"  Captains  Courageous " ;  The  Necessity  of  Keeping  Children 
at  School  as  long  as  Possible ;  Child  Labor ;  A  Strange  Cruise ; 
Physical  Training ;  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals ;  Model 
Aeroplanes;  "With  Lafayette  at  Yorktown";  Divers;  The  Going- 
down  of  the  Titanic ;  Aeroplanes  in  War ;  "  Under  Lawton  at 
Luzon";  Catching  Baboons;  Long  Words;  "  Five  Thousand  Miles 
Underground " ;  Compartments  for  Submarines  in  Battleships ; 
Motor  Boats ;  The  Princeton  Meet ;  "  Tom  Swift  and  his  Sub- 
marine "  ;  The  New  Moving-Picture  Plan ;  Baseball ;  The  Sinking 
of  the  Maine ;  Rabbit-Hunting ;  The  Two  Great  Walkers ;  Choice 
of  Guns;  The  Coal  Strike;  The  Business  Side  of  a  Circus;  The 
Increase  in  Motor  Trucks ;  Farm  Life ;  The  Olympic  Games ; 
The  New  Bandstand  in  Indianapolis ;  "  Huckleberry  Finn."  .  .  . 

SEVENTH-SEMESTER  STUDENTS 

The  Advantage  of  Having  a  Profession ;  The  Panama  Canal ; 
Girard  College ;  Music  and  the  Piano ;  What  Wide  Reading  Does 
for  You ;  Painting ;  "  The  Garden  of  Allah  " ;  A  Town  in  Africa ; 
Pigeons ;  How  to  Make  Caramels ;  Charles  B.  Loomis ;  Brass- 
Craft  ;  Playgrounds  on  the  Piers ;  The  Baking  of  a  Cake  ;  A  Trip 


274  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

to  Pennsylvania ;  The  Manufacture  of  Brier  Pipes ;  The  Delights 
of  Swimming;  Cooking  Cookies ;  Examination  Questions;  Milton, 
the  Classical  Student ;  "  II  Trovatore " ;  Fine  Needlework ;  A 
Bank  that  is  run  by  Women ;  Pyrography ;  An  Excursion  of  the 
History  Club  ;  Amateur  Photography ;  Baseball ;  Making  Peanut 
Brittle  ;  Making  Panocha ;  Scootering ;  My  Present  Aims  in  Life ; 
The  Preservation  of  Wood;  Are  "L'Allegro"  and  "II  Penseroso" 
Complements  or  Opposites  ?  Masques ;  My  Aims  in  Life ;  How 
to  make  Paper  Wistaria ;  Immigration ;  "  Winning  of  Barbara 
Worth  " ;  A  Trip  to  Ellis  Island  ;  Trees  in  Forest  Park ;  Milton ; 
The  Arc  Light;  Two  Modern  Advertisements.  (10:  122-124) 

Classification  of  sources  of  vital  topics.  —  A  rough  clas- 
sification of  the  fields  of  interest  or  sources  of  theme  topics 
which  would  probably  appeal  to  high-school  students  is  the 
following :  i .  Topics  of  general  public  interest,  such  as  the 
Panama  Canal,  tariff  reform,  public  recreation,  adequate  sup- 
port for  the  navy.  2.  Topics  from  vocational  interests,  plans, 
and  activities.  3.  Topics  from  student  activities  and  leisure 
activities,  such  as  athletic  contests,  dances,  the  theater,  auto- 
mobiles, vacation  trips,  etc.  4.  Topics  from  subjects  other 
than  English.  5.  Topics  from  special  projects. 

Vocational  topics.  —  The  second  group,  namely,  the  voca- 
tional, presents  some  of  the  most  vital  possibilities.  Examples 
of  the  development  of  vocational  topics  are  given  in  the 
following  quotations  from  an  article  entitled  "  Composition 
as  Training  in  Thought." 

In  a  class  of  the  first  year  the  subject  "What  should  I  consider 
besides  Pay  in  accepting  a  Position  "  is  proposed.  A  short  oral 
discussion  may  be  necessary  in  the  assignment,  to  start  the  ideas 
of  the  boys.  They  will  suggest  that  such  considerations  as  the 
kind  of  work,  the  character  of  the  employer,  the  chances  for  ad- 
vancement, the  distance  of  the  office  or  factory  from  home,  are 
essential.  The  pupils  are  then  required  .to  arrange  these  and  any 
other  topics  that  occur  to  them  so  that  the  item  which  for  them  is 
the  weightiest  will  come  at  the  end.  This  is  the  old  principle  of 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  275 

climax,  but  not  in  its  usual  Procrustean  form.  In  treating  each 
topic  the  boy  is  required  to  give  the  reasons  why  that  considera- 
tion is  for  him  important  The  next  morning  the  results  will  be 
various.  Some  Lilliputian,  about  four  feet  five  inches  in  height 
and  weighing  nearly  seventy-six  pounds,  will  gravely  declare  that 
he  would  prefer  not  to  have  too  much  heavy  work,  such  as  piano 
moving,  since  it  might  make  him  tired  before  the  end  of  the  day. 
But  there  is  certain  to  be  lively  discussion  of  the  reasons  for  putting 
any  subject  last.  The  opinions  will  be  various,  but  it  will  be  found 
that  each  boy  has  some  reasons  of  his  own  to  support  his  arrange- 
ment. He  has  done  some  thinking. 

From  a  fourth-year  class  more  can  be  expected.  The  subject 
"  My  Qualifications  for  the  Profession  of  Medicine  "  may  be  pro- 
posed. Coming,  as  it  most  profitably  will,  in  a  series  of  vocational 
themes,  it  will  carry  with  it  suggestions  for  attacking  the  problem. 
At  any  rate,  do  not  insist  on  having  a  paragraph  or  section  each 
for  physical,  mental,  and  moral  characteristics  or  qualifications. 
Such  imposing  of  adult  logic  and  classification  on  the  growing 
mind  does  more  harm  than  good.  The  boy  will  probably  work 
his  qualifications  out  in  some  such  manner  as  this :  first,  because 
he  has  steady  nerves  and  can  go  without  sleep  when  necessary ; 
second,  because  in  his  high-school  course  he  has  always  been  most 
interested  in  biology  and  chemistry  and  like  courses ;  third,  because 
in  his  summer  camping  he  has  always  carried  peroxide  of  hydrogen, 
court-plaster,  and  sanitary  bandages,  and  has  taken  great  glee  in 
treating  the  blisters  and  bruises  among  the  boys  in  his  house  or 
tent.  This  may  be  accompanied  by  an  outline,  in  which  the  vari- 
ous ranks  of  ideas  are  indicated  by  the  precisely  right  use  of  Roman 
and  Arabic  numerals,  if  the  teacher  wishes  to  exact  such  detail.  The 
essential  feature  is  that  the  student  be  made  to  show  that  each  of 
these  is  a  qualification,  and  how,  and  that  he  be  able  to  defend 
the  order  in  which  he  treats  the  topics ;  that  is,  he  must  be  held 
responsible  for  the  consecutiveness  of  his  ideas.  (13  :  363-364) 

Topics  from  leisure  interests  and  student  activities.  — 
The  possibilities  for  theme  topics  chosen  from  the  leisure 
interests  or  activities  of  students  are  easily  realized.  Often 
students  who  do  not  seem  to  have  arrived  at  any  serious 


276  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

purposes  in  life  will  have  plenty  to  say  regarding  football 
games,  school  politics,  plays,  dances,  etc. ;  in  fact,  these 
activities  furnish  the  chief  topics  concerning  which  they  are 
spontaneously  expressing  themselves  in  their  everyday  con- 
versations. The  chances  for  serious  and  skilled  writing  upon 
these  topics  is  shown  by  the  amount  of  material  written  about 
them  in  the  current  newspapers  and  magazines. 

Topics  from  other  school  subjects.  —  Topics  from  the  vari- 
ous subjects  of  the  high-school  curriculum  are  especially  good 
for  many  students,  because  they  are  already  engaged  in  think- 
ing about  them  and  are  regularly  expressing  themselves  con- 
cerning them  in  their  class  work.  Hence  these  topics  meet 
the  first  and  fundamental  need  in  composition,  namely,  some- 
thing to  say.  Moreover,  if  the  various  subjects  are  so  organized 
as  to  include  subject  matter  that  corresponds  to  definite  social 
needs,  the  training  which  students  receive  in  expressing  them- 
selves concerning  this  subject  matter  will  be  just  the  training 
which  they  need  in  expressing  themselves  concerning  the 
fundamental  issues  in  daily  life.  In  the  past  it  has  often 
been  the  practice  to  emphasize  topics  chosen  from  literature. 
While  this  subject  furnishes  vital  topics  for  some  students, 
the  other  subjects,  especially  applied  science,  history,  and 
civics,  offer  more  interesting  topics  for  others. 

Topics  secured  from  special  projects.  —  Special  enterprises 
or  projects  undertaken  by  the  school  as  a  whole  or  by  the 
classes  in  composition  may  occasionally  furnish  vital  topics 
for  themes.  This  is  illustrated  by  an  "  Experiment  in  the 
Teaching  of  High-School  Composition  "  described  in  the 
School  Review.  As  far  as  the  choice  of  topics  is  concerned, 
the  following  quoted  paragraphs  present  the  essential  points. 

The  pupils  were  given  the  task  of  gathering  the  pioneer  history 
of  the  community  in  the  form  of  reports  on  specific  topics.  The 
particular  form  in  which  these  reports  were  to  be  written  was  left 
to  the  originality  and  ingenuity  of  the  pupils ;  however,  they  were 
free  to  consult  the  teachers  for  suggestions  at  any  time.  The  pupils 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  277 

were  encouraged  to  interview  the  older  citizens  of  the  community, 
to  examine  monuments  and  relics,  and  to  consult  the  county  and 
city  records,  newspaper  files,  and  printed  matter  relating  to  the 
early  history  of  that  particular  section  of  the  state.  In  every  case 
the  source  of  information  was  to  be  acknowledged,  and  quotations, 
when  used,  were  to  be  properly  marked. 

The  reports  covered  such  general  topics  as  The  Character  of 
the  Earliest  Settlers ;  Their  Language ;  Occupations ;  Modes  of 
Life ;  Clothing ;  Amusements  ;  Social  Customs ;  Institutions ;  The 
Development  of  Leading  Industries ;  Notable  Historic  Undertak- 
ings ;  and  Biographies  of  the  Citizens  who  had  Contributed  most 
to  the  Development  of  the  Community.  Out  of  these  general  re- 
ports such  specific  topics  as  the  following  were  chosen  for  indi- 
vidual themes :  The  Nationality  of  Our  Pioneers ;  A  Chat  with 
the  Earliest  Settler;  The  Making  of  a  Settlement;  Cooking  in 
Pioneer  Days ;  The  Spelling  Bee ;  The  Husking  Bee ;  The  Sing- 
ing School ;  Courtship  in  Pioneer  Days ;  Fashions  in  Pioneer 
Times ;  The  District  School ;  The  Village  Church ;  A  Pioneer 
Lawsuit;  The  Digging  of  the  Old  Canal;  The  Building  of  the 
First  Railroad ;  Trade  Barons  of  the  Early  Community,  etc. 
(14:  538-539) 

English  teacher  needs  broad  experience,  training,  and  point 
of  view.  —  The  demand  that  topics  for  themes  should  be 
chosen  from  a  wide  range  of  everyday  interests  and  activi- 
ties necessitates  broad  experience,  training,  and  point  of  view 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers  of  English.  This  point  is  brought 
out  in  the  following  statement  by  Professor  F.  T.  Baker. 

All  teachers  need  to  know  many  things  outside  their  own  field, 
but  the  teacher  of  English  has  special  need  of  a  wide  range  of 
interests.  If  his  pupils  are  to  learn  to  use  their  language,  they 
will  do  it  only  through  talking  interestedly  about  real  things,  real 
ideas,  real  issues.  Mere  language  is  nothing;  ideas  in  language 
are  much.  And  to  a  high-school  boy  or  to  any  man  of  affairs  the 
only  test  of  language  is  the  effectiveness  with  which  it  does  its 
work  of  conveying  ideas  to  someone  else  who  wants  to  hear  them 
or  who  is  made  willing  to  hear  them  by  the  way  they  are  put  In 


278  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

brief,  the  test  of  expression  is  that  it  "  makes  good  "  by  establishing 
the  desired  connection  between  the  speaker  and  hearer  or  between 
the  writer  and  reader.  Now  it  is  the  material  that  has  the  intrinsic 
interest,  not  the  form ;  the  form  derives  its  importance  only  from 
the  way  in  which  it  conveys  the  material  (I  am  speaking  not  of 
poetry  but  of  common  everyday  English),  and  the  teacher  of 
English  must  know  many  ways  of  helping  pupils  to  an  interest  in 
the  things  around  them.  This  is  his  way  of  stimulating  the  desire 
to  speak  and  write,  and  of  educating  his  pupils  through  their 
speaking  and  writing.  (3  :  342) 

Students  should  realize  that  simple,  sincere  themes  are 
desired.  —  A  caution  of  special  importance  to  teachers  is  to 
make  it  perfectly  clear  to  students  that  only  the  products  of 
their  own  efforts  are  desired,  and  that  copied  material  is  not 
acceptable.  Students  should  be  carefully  instructed  concern- 
ing the  correct  use  of  sources  of  information  and  methods 
of  indicating  indebtedness  to  sources.  They  should  be  made 
to  feel  that  all  sincere  efforts  at  expression  in  their  own  lan- 
guage are  commendable,  and  that  the  standards  by  which  their 
themes  will  be  judged  are  the  average  achievements  of  stu- 
dents of  their  age,  not  the  productions  of  skilled  adult  writers. 
Neglect  of  these  simple  directions  by  teachers  leads  to  dis- 
couragement on  the  part  of  many  students  and  to  dishonest 
copying  of  material  by  others.  In  order  that  a  teacher  may 
get  correct  standards  which  are  based  on  the  average  achieve- 
ments of  students,  it  is  well  to  have  some  writing  done  in  class 
under  careful  supervision.  In  oral  composition  the  teacher  has 
a  better  opportunity  than  in  written  composition  to  arrive  at 
correct  standards  for  judging  the  efforts  of  immature  students. 

Motive  for  expression  furnished  by  real  audience.  —  The 
second  factor  in  the  technique  of  instruction  in  composition 
is  the  creation  of  real  audience  situations  to  furnish  motives 
or  stimuli  to  expression.  This  point  is  suggested,  in  the  last 
paragraph  quoted  above,  in  the  statement  that  "  the  only  test 
of  language  is  the  effectiveness  with  which  it  does  its  work 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  279 

of  conveying  ideas  to  someone  else  who  wants  to  hear  them 
or  who  is  made  willing  to  hear  them  by  the  way  they  are  put." 
Hence,  to  secure  effective  training  in  expression,  students  must 
not  only  have  something  to  say,  but  they  must  feel  that  they 
have  an  audience  to  whom  it  is  worth  while  to  make  the 
matter  clear  and  interesting.  The  instinct  of  communication 
is  so  strong  in  most  persons  that  it  will  serve  as  a  powerful 
stimulus  in  case  the  audience  situation  is  provided.  It  would 
probably  be  impossible  to  arrange  for  an  audience  other  than 
the  teacher  for  every  theme  that  is  written,  but  it  could  easily 
be  arranged  to  have  each  student  stimulated  periodically  by 
the  idea  of  having  his  classmates  as  an  audience.  This  could 
be  done  in  regular  turn  or  by  chance.  In  any  case,  every  stu- 
dent should  be  affected,  not  simply  the  more  capable  writers  or 
speakers.  If  the  teacher  takes  the  right  attitude,  he  may  often 
succeed  in  stimulating  the  students  to  be  interested  in  present- 
ing their  written  material  to  him  as  constituting  an  apprecia- 
tive audience.  In  oral  composition  the  stimulus  of  an  audience 
is  obviously  more  constant  and  probably  more  effective. 

New  information  or  interpretation  by  student  for  audience, 
-  The  proper  provision  for  topics  which  are  related  to  the 
real  live  issues  of  the  day,  in  which  students  themselves  are 
interested,  will  make  it  easy  to  create  real  audience  situations. 
In  order  to  utilize  these  situations  the  following  conditions 
should  prevail :  (i)  the  student  must  be  interested  in  his 
topic  ;  (2)  he  must  have  new  information  or  interpretation  to 
present ;  (3)  he  must  try  to  do  this  effectively  to  the  best  of  his 
ability,  knowing  that  unprepared  effort  will  not  be  tolerated. 

One  device  for  carrying  out  these  suggestions  is  to  permit 
students  to  specialize  for  some  time  upon  one  topic,  reporting 
to  the  class  frequently  or  occasionally  concerning  it.  For  ex- 
ample, in  a  class  in  New  York  City  a  Jewish  boy  who  had 
fled  from  persecution  in  Russia  related  and  discussed  portions 
of  his  experiences  from  time  to  time.  In  another  school  a 
boy  specialized  for  some  time  upon  discussions  of  systems  of 


280  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

coaching  athletic  teams.  Another  specialized  on  the  con- 
struction  and  use  of  flying  machines. 

Technical  administration  of  training.  —  Having  provided 
the  two  most  fundamental  necessities  for  training  in  expres- 
sion, namely,  something  to  say  and  an  audience  to  which  it 
seems  worth  while  to  say  it,  the  next  points  to  be  considered 
concern  the  more  technical  administration  of  the  training  in 
organizing  and  presenting  material. 

Require  students  to  have  clear  ideas  to  express. — The 
first  essential  in  the  actual  preparation  of  material  to  be  pre- 
sented is  clear  thinking  upon  the  part  of  the  student.  Provided 
the  student  has  a  body  of  information  that  he  is  interested 
in  expressing,  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  develop  some  clear 
thinking  in  most  cases.  Obviously,  however,  if  he  has  no  in- 
formation or  content,  it  is  futile  to  expect  clear  thinking.  This 
furnishes  an  additional  reason  for  arranging  to  have  students 
specialize  in  expressing  themselves  upon  topics  concerning 
which  they  are  quite  well  informed. 

It  is  sometimes  maintained  that  clear  expression  will  follow 
as  a  matter  of  course  if  students  have  clear  ideas.  This  is  not 
the  case,  however.  For  example,  many  objective  relationships 
may  be  clearly  perceived  and  understood  by  a  student,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  construction  of  an  engine,  but  he  may  lack 
the  descriptive  vocabulary  necessary  to  make  these  relations 
clear  to  an  audience.  Such  a  description  might  be  difficult 
even  for  an  expert  in  the  use  of  language.  This  is  shown  by 
the  necessity  of  using  drawings  and  diagrams  in  scientific  or 
practical  treatises  in  order  to  convey  the  ideas  which  are  to 
be  expressed.  But  though  we  may  admit  that  clear  thinking 
may  be  possible  without  clear  expression,  it  remains  true  that 
clear,  original  expression  is  impossible  without  clear  thinking. 

Organization  in  form  of  brief  is  a  most  essential  device. — 
As  an  aid  to  clear  thinking,  the  mechanical  organization  and 
arrangement  of  ideas  upon  paper  in  outline  form  is  the 
most  important  device.  This  arrangement  should  vary  from 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  281 

initial  rough,  hasty  sketches,  in  terms  of  mere  words  and 
phrases,  to  a  completely  organized  brief  consisting  of  com- 
plete, concise  statements  and  propositions,  so  paragraphed, 
numbered,  and  arranged  in  the  form  of  main  points  and  sub- 
points  as  to  indicate  clearly  the  relative  rank  and  the  degree 
of  subordination  of  the  various  parts. 

Brief  is  a  mechanical  aid  to  clear  thinking.  — The  arrange- 
ment of  points  in  order  and  with  indentation  under  their  appro- 
priate headings  shows  up  in  a  mechanical  and  almost  certain 
way  how  thorough  and  clear  the  thinking  of  the  student  has 
been.  At  a  glance  obscurities  and  illogical  arrangements  may 
be  detected  that  might  easily  be  overlooked  in  a  completely 
written  paper,  or  that  it  would  take  some  time  to  discover. 
Thus  the  brief  is  an  invaluable  mechanical  aid  to  the  student 
as  a  check  upon  his  own  thinking,  and  it  is  a  mechanical  aid 
and  great  timesaver  to  the  teacher  who  reads  the  productions 
of  the  students. 

The  use  of  such  briefs  in  training  in  expression  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  whole  activity  in  the  type  of  expression 
that  is  being  discussed  here,  namely,  practical  descriptive,  ex- 
pository, and  argumentative  writing  and  speaking.  If  more 
emphasis  were  placed  upon  the  organization  of  briefs  and  oral 
expression,  and  less  upon  completely  written  papers,  better 
results  would  be  achieved.  It  would  probably  be  a  good  prac- 
tice to  have  two  thirds  of  the  assigned  topics  treated  only  in 
the  form  of  briefs  and  oral  discussions,  leaving  the  remaining 
third  to  be  worked  up  beyond  the  brief  stage  into  com- 
pletely written  papers.  This  would  enable  and  require  the 
students  to  spend  their  time  upon  careful  thinking  and  organ- 
izing and  upon  concise  phrasing  of  the  essential  ideas. 

Student  must  get  point  of  view  of  his  audience.  —  Having 
assured  clearly  organized  ideas  upon  the  part  of  the  student, 
the  next  point  is  to  get  him  to  take  the  point  of  view  of  his 
probable  audience  and  to  regard  his  material  from  this  angle. 
Get  him  to  ask  himself,  "How  will  this  material  appeal  in  its 


282  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

present  form  to  the  listeners  or  readers  ?  Will  it  be  clear  ? 
interesting ?  impressive?"  These  points  of  view  may  require 
reconstruction  and  reorganization  of  the  brief,  which  may  have 
been  quite  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  clearly  organized 
thinking  by  the  student. 

Obscure  exposition  resulting  from  failure  to  do  so.  —  The 
distinction  between  clear  thinking  by  the  expresser  and  clear, 
effective  exposition,  which  is  dependent  upon  keeping  con- 
stantly in  mind  the  point  of  view  of  the  listener  or  reader,  is 
illustrated  constantly  in  daily  life.  Thus,  in  an  ordinary  con- 
versational report  of  some  event  which  may  be  perfectly  clear 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  we  commonly  find  many  obscuri- 
ties, which  are  usually  due  to  two  causes :  first,  lapses  or  omis- 
sions in  the  expression  (that  is,  the  speaker  fails  to  relate 
all  of  the  essential  ideas  which  he  has  in  mind) ;  second,  vague 
references  which  usually  occur  in  the  use  of  pronouns.  These 
defects  are  often  found  in  the  discourses  of  conscientious  and 
in  some  respects  efficient  teachers.  The  omissions  by  such 
speakers  are  particularly  striking.  Such  omissions,  as  well  as 
vague  references,  might  be  partially  avoided  if  the  speaker  or 
writer  could  be  trained  to  keep  in  mind  the  point  of  view  of 
his  audience  and  its  progress  in  following  his  train  of  thought. 

Specialized  personal  interest  subordinated  to  interest  of 
audience.  —  The  same  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  or 
writer  will  assist  in  making  the  material  interesting  to  the 
audience.  He  should  be  trained  to  realize  that  his  specialized 
or  personal  interest  in  the  subject  may  not  be  shared  by 
them,  and  that  his  method  of  approach  should  usually  be 
determined  by  their  interests,  not  by  his.  This  point  is  com- 
monly overlooked  by  many  amateur  writers  and  speakers, 
with  disastrous  results.  Its  importance  in  practical  affairs  is 
illustrated  in  the  work  of  the  traveling  salesman,  who  must 
approach  his  prospective  buyer  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
latter's  interest.  It  is  also  illustrated  in  political  discussions, 
in  the  drama,  and  in  many  other  activities. 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  283 

Persuasive  expression  important  in  politics  and  business. 

—  The  third  question  that  the  amateur  expresser  should  ask 
himself,   namely,   Will  the  presentation  be  impressive  ?   is 
especially   important   in   connection    with    certain    practical 
activities,  such  as  politics,   salesmanship,   and   advertising. 
In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  be  clear  and  inter- 
esting,  but  also  to  be  persuasive.     The  material  must  be 
arranged  so  as  to  be  impressive  and  to  inspire  belief.    Many 
students  with  practical  or  commercial  tendencies  would  quickly 
appreciate  this  point  and  become  interested  in  developing 
skill  in  persuasive  writing  or  speaking  on  practical  topics. 

Expressions  should  not  distract  attention  by  peculiar  form. 

—  A  fourth  and  final  point  to  be  considered  by  the  student  in 
getting  the  point  of  view  of  his  audience  is  to  adapt  his  vocab- 
ulary to  theirs  in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid  distracting  attention 
from  the  thought ;  that  is,  the  language  used  should  not  be 
such  as  to  attract  undue  attention  in  itself.    Obviously,  the 
language  to  be  used  would  vary  enormously  with  the  character 
of  the  audience.    If  the  student  is  writing  for  the  general 
reader,  he  should  be  careful  to  use  only  forms  of  expression 
that  are  in  good  general  use,  and  he  should  avoid  highly 
specialized  technical  expressions  and  slang.     On  the  other 
hand,  if  he  is  writing  an  account  of  the  operation  of  a  turbine 
engine,  with  a  class  of  prospective  engineers  as  an  audience, 
his  language  might  be  quite  technical ;  if  he  is  writing  an 
account  of  a  baseball  game  for  a  class  of  high-school  boys,  it 
might  contain  a  great  deal  of  the  current  slang  of  the  game. 

The  standard  proposed  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  namely, 
avoiding  language  which  will  distract  the  attention  of  the 
audience  from  the  thought,  will  help  in  securing  a  rational 
basis  for  the  correction  of  linguistic  errors  and  will  assist  in 
the  avoidance  of  pedantry  in  such  correction.  Obviously  mis- 
spellings and  the  use  of  "  I  seen  "  and  even  colloquialisms 
like  "  he  won't "  are  undesirable,  because  so  many  general 
readers  would  have  their  attention  distracted  from  the  thought 


284  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

by  such  expressions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  "I  will" 
and  "we  will"  to  express  simple  future  tense  is  probably  jus- 
tified, since  only  academic  linguistic  purists  would  notice  the 
form  used ;  the  ordinary  reading  public  would  simply  get  the 
thought  of  future  action.  Similarly  in  regard  to  slang ;  for 
example,  such  an  expression  as  "  make  good  "  is  so  generally 
current  that  the  ordinary  reader  gets  its  meaning  easily  with- 
out any  interruption  of  the  thought  and  without  having  his 
attention  distracted  by  the  form  of  expression  used. 

Teachers'  corrections  should  stress  content  as  well  as  form. 
—  If  the  student  can  be  trained  to  keep  in  mind  the  neces- 
sity of  getting  the  point  of  view  of  his  audience,  many  of  the 
formal  points  of  rhetoric  will  thus  be  provided  for.  The  four 
aspects  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  are  among  the 
most  important,  namely,  to  consider  whether  the  presentation 
will  be  clear,  interesting,  and  impressive  to  the  particular  lis- 
teners or  readers  for  whom  it  is  intended,  and  whether  the 
vocabulary  and  forms  of  expression  used  are  so  chosen  as  not 
to  impede  the  thought  or  distract  attention  by  their  peculiarity. 
As  far  as  the  relation  between  the  larger  aspects  of  expression 
and  its  more  detailed  formal  aspects  concern  the  teacher,  the 
following  advice  by  Professor  Baker  is  worth  considering. 

Shall  [the  teacher]  correct  themes  ?  Surely.  But  he  must  know 
how.  He  must  not  be  fussy  nor  pitch  his  standard  too  high.  He 
must  not  forget  that  it  is  the  ideas  rather  than  the  form  that  are 
the  main  thing.  He  must  not  forget  to  put  the  responsibility  for 
the  form  on  the  pupils  as  fast  as  possible,  and  to  make  them  proof- 
read their  own  themes.  He  must  himself  be  highly  enough  trained 
not  only  to  catch,  at  a  rapid  glance,  the  errors  and  infelicities  of 
expression,  that  are,  however  important,  still  only  matters  of  de- 
tail; he  must  be  highly  enough  trained  also  to  make,  in  rapid 
reading,  valid  judgments  of  the  general  qualities  of  thought  in  a 
pupil's  work  —  to  gauge  it  for  soundness,  clearness,  proportion, 
interest.  He  must  see  it,  indeed,  as  a  critic  sees  a  manuscript 
submitted  for  publication.  (3 :  343) 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  285 

How  to  avoid  snap  courses  in  oral  expression.  —  Train- 
ing in  oral  expression  in  English  classes  offers  certain  special 
difficulties  which  are  worth  considering.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  prescribed  courses  in  public  speaking  introduced  into 
schools  by  administrators  or  faculties  who  recognize  the  large 
social  value  in  such  training,  but  to  find  them  abolished  after 
a  few  years  as  required  courses,  owing  to  the  unsatisfactory 
way  in  which  they  are  administered.  The  chief  objection  is 
that  they  become  "  snaps  "  and  are  characterized  by  lack  of 
serious  preparation  by  the  students  outside  of  class  and  by 
waste  of  time  listening  to  speakers  while  in  class.  In  con- 
trast with  this  condition,  classes  in  written  composition  usu- 
ally have  the  reputation  of  being  "  hard  "  or  "  heavy,"  and 
students  on  debating  teams  do  very  intense  studying  in 
preparation  for  their  debates.  In  view  of  these  facts,  the 
following  methods  of  securing  more  efficient  training  in  oral 
expression  in  English  classes  have  been  suggested. 

1.  Give  the  work  more  definite  and  specific  intellectual 
content  by  requiring  students  to  investigate  topics  and  write 
briefs  in  the  same  way  as  is  done  by  debating  teams. 

2.  Associate  the  training  in  oral  expression  with  the  work 
in  written  composition. 

3 .  Require  students  to  study  and  discuss  important  speeches, 
legal  arguments,  "  selling  talks,"  etc.  from  the  standpoint  of 
content,  organization,  and  form  of  expression. 

4.  Provide  some  type  of  laboratory  or  class  organization 
so  that  each  student  speaks  only  to  a  small  committee  or 
group,  including  the  teacher,  thus  enabling  other  members 
of  the  class  to  be  using  their  time  in  studying. 

Experiments  suggest  superiority  of  combined  training  in 
oral  and  written  composition.  —  The  social  importance  of 
training  in  oral  expression,  and  the  desirability  of  ascertaining 
what  results  are  secured  when  oral  and  written  composition 
are  combined  in  various  ways,  have  led  progressive  teachers 
of  English  to  undertake  experiments  to  determine  the  most 


286  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

effective  methods  of  administering  the  combination.  One  of 
the  most  significant  of  these  experiments  is  the  work  carried 
on  by  some  twenty-five  high-school  teachers  in  Illinois  under 
the  direction  of  a  committee  of  which  Professor  J.  M.  Clapp 
was  chairman.  Each  teacher  conducted  two  parallel  first-year 
classes  in  composition,  one  class  taking  the  ordinary  course 
in  written  composition  and  the  other  a  course  in  which  two 
thirds  of  the  themes  were  oral  and  one  third  were  written. 
The  experiment  was  continued  for  a  semester  and  produced 
results  which  were  definitely  in  favor  of  the  combined  course 
in  oral  and  written  composition.  The  precise  details  of  the 
experiment  are  too  long  to  permit  us  to  reproduce  them 
here,  but  every  English  teacher  should  read  the  full  ac- 
count referred  to  in  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter.  (7  :  148-163) 

A  suggestive  plan  for  organizing  "  Oral  Composition  as  a 
Basis  for  Written  "  is  described  as  being  in  use  in  a  high 
school  in  St.  Louis.  (5:  354-361.)  In  the  first  year  three 
periods  are  devoted  to  oral  composition  and  one  to  written  ; 
in  the  second  year,  three  to  oral  and  two  to  written ;  in  the 
third  and  fourth  years,  two  to  oral  and  two  to  written.  The 
author  emphasizes  especially  the  superiority  of  practice  under 
immediate  supervision,  which  is  secured  in  the  oral  method, 
as  contrasted  with  the  long-delayed  criticism  of  the  results  of 
unsupervised  practice,  which  prevails  in  the  ordinary  method 
of  teaching  written  composition. 

Principles  of  practice  to  be  applied.— r Training  in  expres- 
sion offers  opportunities  for  applying  the  general  principles 
of  practice  which  were  discussed  above  in  Chapter  VIII 
(see  p.  142).  The  application  was  made  there  to  acquiring 
motor  skill,  as  in  tossing  balls  or  learning  to  use  a  typewriter, 
and  to  memorizing.  I  know  of  no  experimental  investigations 
of  the  application  of  these  principles  to  training  in  compo- 
sition, but  it  would  be  possible  to  carry  out  the  same  type  of 
investigation  in  this  field.  It  would  be  complicated,  however, 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  287 

owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing,  for  the  quantitative  meas- 
urement of  progress,  objective  units  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  letters  written  in  typewriting  or  to  the  time  con- 
sumed in  memorizing.  With  the  present  condition  of  our 
knowledge  we  can  simply  conjecture  or  draw  inferences  con- 
cerning the  application  of  the  general  principles  of  practice 
to  training  in  composition.  In  order  to  do  this  the  student 
should  review  pages  142-146  and  consider  to  what  extent 
the  principles  discussed  there  apply  here. 

The  principle  of  assuring  a  correct  start  would  need  care- 
ful interpretation.  Often,  as  applied  to  composition,  it  has 
been  interpreted  to  mean  absolutely  correct  linguistic  form. 
Insistence  upon  this  has  killed  spontaneity  and  overshadowed 
the  desired  initial  emphasis  upon  real,  vital  content  and  clearly 
organized  ideas. 

The  importance  of  the  proper  emotional  tone,  including 
feelings  of  success  and  satisfaction,  is  as  great  in  training  in 
expression  as  in  any  other  kind  of  practice.  Zeal  and  con- 
centration of  attention  are  also  essential. 

The  best  length  of  the  unit  to  be  used  for  theme  assign- 
ments should  be  determined.  If  the  principles  summarized 
on  pages  161—164  apply  here,  short  daily  periods  of  writing 
or  speaking  should  prove  to  be  quite  helpful. 

Training  in  expression  best  secured  in  content  subjects.  — 
In  the  first  part  of  this  chapter  it  was  stated  that  in  order 
to  provide  successful  training  in  expression,  the  principles  of 
such  training  should  be  applied  by  all  teachers  in  all  subjects 
in  which  students  are  expressing  themselves.  As  indicated 
throughout  this  chapter,  these  principles  concern  primarily 
clear  thinking  about  a  body  of  information  which  the  student 
possesses  and  which  he  is  interested  in  discussing,  and  careful 
effort  to  get  the  point  of  view  of  his  audience  in  order  to 
make  the  presentation  clear,  interesting,  and  impressive. 
These  principles  should  be  applied  in  recitations  in  all  sub- 
jects. If  this  is  done  and  students  are  given  opportunities  to 


288  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

recite  for  two  or  more  minutes,  and  are  given  sufficient  time, 
when  writing,  to  cast  their  thoughts  into  good  form,  the 
training  secured  in  expression  in  the  several  subjects  will 
be  more  influential  than  that  secured  during  the  specialized 
composition  periods. 

Require  briefs  and  careftdly  prepared  contribution  recita- 
tions.— The  opportunities  for  training  in  the  organization  of 
briefs  and  in  oral  expression  are  abundant  in  classes  in  his- 
tory, literature,  and  applied  science.  In  these  subjects  there  is  a 
large  body  of  interesting,  available  material  upon  which  special 
individual  assignments  for  reports  can  be  based.  By  this 
arrangement  the  two  essentials,  namely,  vital  content  and  the 
audience  situations,  can  easily  be  secured.  Each  student  pre- 
pares- significant  material  that  is  new  to  the  rest  of  the  class, 
on  a  topic  that  is  of  general  interest.  The  main  points  are 
organized  in  the  form  of  a  brief  which  the  teacher  should 
examine  in  advance  in  many  cases.  When  the  point  in  the 
discussion  is  reached  upon  which  each  student's  material  bears, 
he  is  called  upon  to  present  it.  Such  reports  may  vary  from 
two  or  three  minutes  to  thirty  minutes  in  length.  The  longer 
reports  should  be  presented  only  after  several  individual  con- 
ferences with  the  teacher. 

In  classes  where  the  teacher  is  skilled  in  organizing  such 
contribution  recitations,  the  efficiency  developed  in  oral  expo- 
sition by  the  students  is  surprising  to  one  who  has  never  seen 
the  method  used.  If  in  any  school  the  teachers  of  English, 
the  principal,  and  the  teachers  of  the  content  subjects  who 
have  some  skill  or  interest  in  organizing  such  training  as  has 
been  described  would  get  together  and  plan  to  make  the  train- 
ing as  efficient  as  possible,  certain  standard  conditions  would 
be  developed  which  would  assure  much  more  valuable  results 
in  oral  and  written  expression  than  could  possibly  be  secured 
by  the  most  efficient  English  department  working  alone. 

Cooperating  teachers  do  not  need  technical  skill  in  Eng- 
lish. —  One  special  advantage  of  this  scheme  for  cooperative 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  289 

training  in  expression  is  that  it  does  not  demand  of  the  teachers 
of  the  content  subjects  knowledge  of  the  technical  points  in 
grammar  and  rhetoric.  It  simply  requires  that  each  teacher 
be  able  to  assist  students  in  securing  clear,  interesting,  and 
impressive  presentations  of  material  with  which  the  teacher 
is  familiar. .  As  a  preliminary  step  to  this  presentation  the 
scheme  requires  the  checking  up  and  criticizing  of  carefully 
organized  briefs  as  objective  evidence  of  the  investigating, 
thinking,  and  organizing  which  has  been  done  by  the  stu- 
dents. Many  teachers  who  would  be  unsuccessful  in  detect- 
ing the  less  glaring  grammatical  errors  would  be  entirely 
capable  of  administering  this  scheme.  I  have  seen  it  used 
successfully  in  high  school,  and  have  always  used  it  in  some 
of  my  own  classes.  Other  aspects  of  it  will  be  discussed  in 
a  later  chapter.  We  are  concerned  here  only  with  the  oppor- 
tunities which  it  offers  for  training  in  expression. 

Cooperation  in  formal  training  by  reference  to  English  de- 
partment, —  Cooperative  training  in  the  more  formal  aspects 
of  expression  should  also  be  organized  in  high-school  classes. 
Only  competent  teachers  of  English,  however,  are  capable 
of  administering  these  more  technical  aspects  of  the  training, 
but  the  teaching  should  be  so  organized  as  to  bring  their  skill 
to  bear  upon  the  productions  of  the  students  in  all  of  the 
classes.  The  possibilities  of  successfully  organizing  such  a 
scheme  are  discussed  at  length  by  J.  F.  Hosic  in  an  article 
entitled  "  Cooperation  of  all  Departments  in  the  Teaching  of 
English  Composition."  Descriptions  of  two  examples  of  suc- 
cessful plans  are  given  and  should  be  read  by  students.  The 
final  paragraph  sums  up  the  matter  in  the  following  words : 

To  summarize :  Cooperation  in  English  composition,  to  be  suc- 
cessful, must  be  organized  and  administered  by  the  head  of  the 
school  for  the  good  of  all.  This  will  involve  the  setting-up  of  com- 
mon aims  and  the  establishing  of  suitable  working  conditions. 
Instruction  in  the  technique  of  speaking  and  writing  should  be  re- 
garded as  the  work  of  the  teachers  of  English.  Teachers  of  other 


290  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

subjects  should  refuse  to  accept  oral  reports  or  written  papers 
which  are  below  the  standards  agreed  upon.  If  the  delinquent 
student  fails  to  repair  the  deficiency,  he  should  be  reported  to  the 
principal  and  sent  to  the  English  department  for  further  training. 
In  matters  of  substance,  particularly  clearness  and  completeness, 
the  teacher  of  each  subject  should  point  out  the  weakness,  cause 
it  to  be  removed,  and  apportion  credit  to  the  paper  in  accordance 
with  the  degree  of  success  attained.  By  means  of  class  visitation 
and  conference,  teachers  of  English  and  of  other  subjects  should 
seek  to  join  their  efforts  so  as  to  accomplish  the  most  effective 
training  of  the  student  in  the  arts  of  study  and  of  expression  with 
the  greatest  economy  of  his  time  and  the  most  consistent  unifying 
of  his  life.  (12  :  607) 

Need  simple  mamials  of  the  essentials  of  English  expres- 
sion. —  For  all  who  are  concerned  in  training  in  verbal  ex- 
pression (namely,  teachers  of  English,  cooperating  teachers 
in  other  subjects,  and  students)  there  is  needed  a  simple  text 
or  syllabus  of  the  most  essential  points  to  be  observed.  Most 
grammars,  rhetorics,  stylebooks,  and  manuals  for  writers  have 
been  too  complete  and  too  technical  to  be  of  much  service  to 
the  persons  mentioned  in  the  preceding  sentence.  Even 
teachers  of  English  in  high  schools  are  often  quite  untrained 
for  their  special  work,  and  the  books  which  they  use  with 
the  students  become  in  their  hands  primarily  compendiums 
of  information  to  be  learned,  instead  of  manuals  to  guide  and 
improve  practice.  Such  books  are  even  less  useful  for  coop- 
erating teachers  and  for  students.  Teachers  in  large  city  high 
schools  or  large,  well-organized  normal  schools,  who  are  ad- 
ministering successful  cooperative  schemes  for  training  in 
verbal  expression,  would  perform  a  very  useful  service  for 
other  teachers  by  preparing  such  manuals  of  the  essentials  in 
expression,  in  such  a  form  as  to  be  of  real  practical  use  to 
high-school  students.  They  should  be  notable  for  what  they 
omit  as  well  as  for  what  they  contain.  (See  13  a  for  an  ex- 
ample of  a  good  manual  of  practice.) 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  291 

General  principles  of  expression  apply  to  drawing.  —  Up 

to  this  point  we  have  been  concerned  primarily  with  training 
in  oral  and  written  expression.  As  stated  in  the  beginning 
of  the  chapter,  there  is  only  one  other  type  of  expression  that 
is  in  sufficiently  general  use  to  justify  discussing  it  in  this 
chapter,  namely,  drawing,  or  graphic  expression.  Many  of 
the  same  principles  as  have  been  advanced  in  discussing  verbal 
expression  would  apply  to  graphic  expression.  This  would  be 
true  of  the  following  principles  :  (i)  to  provide  vital  content; 
(2)  to  make  sure  that  the  pupils  have  clear  ideas  to  be  ex- 
pressed ;  (3)  to  provide  an  audience  situation  ;  (4)  to  apply  the 
rules  of  practice ;  (5)  to  cooperate  with  other  departments  in 
which  drawing  would  be  a  really  useful  instrument  of  expres- 
sion. Obviously  the  application  of  these  principles  involves 
regarding  drawing  primarily  as  an  instrument  of  expression. 
Very  often  drawing  is  taught  simply  as  the  mastery  of  a  tech- 
nique of  producing  aesthetically  pleasing  effects,  the  initial 
stages  in  the  training  involving  almost  no  vital  content  of  the 
same  order  as  is  expressed  in  language.  Such  a  method  of 
teaching  drawing  parallels  very  closely  the  purely  formal  lin- 
guistic methods  to  which  reference  was  made  above.  From 
the  standpoint  of  recent  progressive  developments  in  general 
educational  theory  and  in  the  teaching  of  drawing  it  would 
seem  that  the  teaching  of  this  subject  according  to  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  training  in  expression  advocated  above 
would  be  much  more  successful  with  general  students  than 
the  formal  methods  of  teaching  would  be.  A  somewhat  tech- 
nical contrast  of  the  two  methods  is  presented  in  the  follow- 
ing review,  by  Professor  Walter  Sargent,  of  a  book  on  the 
teaching  of  art. 

[The  author]  designates  [his]  plan  as  a  synthetic  method  —  a 
method  of  building  up  given  material,  such  as  lines,  shapes,  tones, 
and  colors,  into  forms  of  aesthetic  expression..  This  method  is  con- 
trasted with  what  is  termed  the  analytic  or  academic  method,  which 
consists  in  drawing  from  nature  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  facts  of 


292  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

appearance,  and  skill  in  representing  these  facts.  Following  the 
analytic  method,  the  student  would  begin  by  observing  and  record- 
ing facts  of  appearance,  to  be  used  later  as  a  medium  of  expres- 
sion. By  the  synthetic  method  the  student  begins  by  arranging 
lines,  shapes,  and  tones  so  as  to  build  up  harmonious  combinations. 
He  accompanies  this  practice  with  drawing  from  nature  in  order 
to  obtain  data  to  render  these  lines  and  shapes  significant  in  ex- 
pression as  well  as  beautiful  in  arrangement. 

[The  author]  has  rendered  an  important  service  to  art  educa- 
tion in  thus  sharply  contrasting  the  interest  in  recording  objective 
facts  as  they  appear  to  the  eye  with  the  interest  in  harmonious 
arrangement  of  forms  so  that  they  produce  aesthetic  satisfaction. 
He  rightly  insists  that  the  principles  of  arrangement  of  lines, 
spaces,  and  tones  have  a  logic  of  their  own,  which  produces 
aesthetic  pleasure  and  which  is  in  large  degree  distinct  from  any 
consideration  of  the  subject  matter  which  those  lines  represent. 
He  emphasizes  the  truth  that  no  amount  of  industry  or  skill  along 
the  line  of  literal  representation  can  by  itself  produce  the  full 
range  of  artistic  expression. 

The  principles  expressed  in  the  book  are  concretely  set  forth  in 
a  series  of  exercises  suitable  for  different  grades  and  adapted  to 
give  acquaintance  with,  and  ability  to  use,  the  elements  of  artistic 
expression. 

While  accepting  [the  author's]  distinction  between  the  interest 
in  representing  appearances  and  the  interest  in  harmonious  arrange- 
ment of  form,  one  questions  whether  a  certain  loss  to  art  would 
not  result  from  limiting  the  value  of  literal  drawing  from  objects 
merely  to  that  of  securing  data  to  give  significance  to  compositions 
which  would  otherwise  be  abstract,  and  whether  practice  in  con- 
scientious analysis  of  actual  appearances  has  not  made  a  contribu- 
tion to  art  which  the  approach  by  principles  of  design  does  not 
include.  The  history  of  art  seems  to  indicate  that  the  close  study 
of  a  bit  of  reality  in  order  to  lay  hold  upon  its  meaning  and  tran- 
scribe its  characteristics  without  regard  to  artistic  composition  often 
leads  one  beyond  the  scientific  interest  in  securing  information  and 
into  an  interest  in  the  individual  significance  of  that  object,  into  a 
sympathetic  attitude  toward  that  particular  portion  of  reality,  and 
thus  into  a  genuine  aesthetic  experience  of  a  sort  which  initiates 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  293 

the  style  of  expression  and  does  not  merely  furnish  data  to  make 
significant  the  otherwise  abstract  elements  of  a  decorative  con- 
vention. (15:  455) 

Drawing  used  as  an  aid  in  various  subjects.  —  It  has 
become  quite  common  to  use  drawing  as  an  aid  in  studying 
the  biological  sciences  (botany,  zoology,  etc.),  but  there  are 
possibilities  of  using  it  as  an  aid  in  other  subjects,  of  which 
advantage  is  not  ordinarily  taken.  In  geography  the  repre- 
sentation of  contours  by  contour  lines  and  by  shaded  pencil 
or  chalk  drawings  is  very  helpful.  In  history,  maps  of  vari- 
ous sorts  and  sketches  of  buildings,  weapons,  etc.  may  be 
made  by  the  students  to  advantage.  In  technical  high  schools 
where  students  are  given  training  in  drawing,  cooperative 
teaching  which  utilizes  such  opportunities  as  have  been  men- 
tioned is  not  uncommon.  In  other  high  schools  the  oppor- 
tunities to  use  drawing  as  a  means  of  expression  in  the 
various  subjects  are  commonly  neglected. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  training  in  expression.  —  This 
will  conclude  our  discussion  of  training  in  expression.  We 
have  emphasized  the  social  importance  of  such  training,  and 
have  indicated  that  efficient  methods  of  instruction  in  ex- 
pression must  take  their  point  of  departure  from  the  discus- 
sion by  students  of  fundamental,  vital  issues  which  are  worthy 
of  presentation  in  a  clear,  interesting,  and  impressive  manner 
to  the  class  as  a  real  audience.  The  best  training  can  be 
secured  by  the  organization  of  standardized  "contribution  reci- 
tations "  in  all  of  the  content  subjects.  In  the  regular  English 
classes  topics  chosen  from  these  other  subjects  and  from  the 
vocational  and  leisure  interests  of  the  students  can  be  used 
effectively.  In  all  cases  clear  thinking,  which  is  stimulated  and 
assisted  by  the  organization  of  material  in  the  form  of  briefs, 
is  fundamental  in  the  preparation  of  material  for  presentation. 

This  chapter  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  five  special 
aspects  or  types  of  learning  which  we  have  distinguished, 


294  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

namely,  acquiring  motor  skill,  associating  symbols  and  mean- 
ings, reflective  thinking,  acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment,  and 
acquiring  skill  in  expression.  In  the  next  two  chapters  we 
shall  continue  the  discussion  of  the  learning  process,  in  some 
of  its  more  general  aspects,  under  the  headings  self-activity 
and  apperception,  and  changes  in  methods  of  learning  with 
increasing  age  of  the  students. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General,  i.  DEWEY,  JOHN.  How  We  Think.  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
1910.)  Pp.  178-187.  Fundamental  principles  of  training  in  using 
language. 

2.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seller,  1905.) 
Chap,  xiii,  pp.  206-218.  The  best  eclectic  treatment  of  the  value  of 
various  forms  of  expression. 

Special  references.  3.  BAKER,  F.  T.  The  Teacher  of  English. 
English  Journal,  June,  1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  335-343. 

4.  CANBY,  H.  S.,  and  others.    English  Composition.    (The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1911.)    Stresses  exposition  as  of  first  importance  for 
most  students. 

5.  CHILES,  E.  E.    Oral  Composition  as  a  Basis  for  Written.   Eng- 
lish Journal,  June,  1914,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  354-361. 

6.  CHUBB,  P.    The  Menace  of  Pedantry  in  Teaching   English. 
School  Review,  January,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  34-45. 

7.  CLAPP,  J.  M.    Report  of  Experiment  in  Combining  Oral  and 
Written  Composition.    University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  XI,  No.  1 7, 
pp.  148-163.   (University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  Illinois.) 

8.  COLE,  W.  M.    The  Vital  in  Teaching  English.    School  Review, 
September,  1906,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  469-483. 

9.  English  Journal,  the  official  organ  of  the  National  Council  of 
English  Teachers.    (Published  by  The  University  of  Chicago  Press.) 
Should  be  read  regularly  by  all  teachers  of  English. 

10.  GASTON,  C.  R.   Discovering  Human  Interests.  English  Journal, 
February,  1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  122-124. 

1 1 .  HANNEL,  W.  C.  A.    Drawing  and  its  Relation  to  Arts  and  Crafts 
in  the  Public  Schools.   Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion, 1910,  pp.  635-642.    Discusses  use  of  drawing  in  various  subjects. 

1 2.  HosiC,  J.  F.    Cooperation  of  all  Departments  in  the  Teaching 
of  English  Composition.    School  Review,  November,  1913,  Vol.  XXI. 
pp.  598-607. 


TRAINING  IN  EXPRESSION  295 

13.  MILES,  D.    Composition  as  a  Training  in  Thought.    English 
Journal,  June,  1913,  Vol.  II,  pp.  362-365. 

1 3«.  NEAL,  R.  W.  Thought  Building  in  Composition,  a  Practical 
Manual.  (The  Macmillan  Company.)  An  excellent  book. 

1 4.  REAVIS,  W.  C.  An  Experiment  in  the  Teaching  of  High-School 
Composition.    School  Review,  October,  1913,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  538-541. 

15.  SARGENT,  W.    Review  of  a  book  on  the  teaching  of  drawing. 
Elementary  School  Teacher,  May,  1913,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  455. 

Additional  bibliography.  —  Extensive  additions  to  this  bibliography 
plus  many  references  on  training  in  the  enjoyment  of  reading  are 
given  in  Exercises  for  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools" 
pp.  EI39-EI40  and  £155. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XI,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  EI42-EI54.  These 
pages,  together  with  pp.  E  1 1  y-E  1 39,  contain  much  supplementary  mate- 
rial of  interest  to  teachers  of  English.  It  includes  poems,  cartoons,  a 
stenographic  report  of  a  high-school  lesson,  and  a  report  of  the  voluntary 
reading  done  by  some  eight  hundred  high-school  pupils. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  The  principles  of  self -activity  and 
apperception  apply  to  all  of  the  special  types  of  learning  discussed 
in  the  preceding  chapters. 

2.  To  apply  the  principle  of  self -activity  (namely,  that  the  stu- 
dent is  educated  by  his  own  responses),  the  teacher  must  make  sure 
that  the  type  of  mental  response  or  mental  activity  expected  of  the 
pupil  has  actually  occurred. 

3.  The  student's  words  are  often  unreliable  evidence  of  his 
mental  processes. 

4.  Apperception  is  used  here  to  designate  the  general  fact  that 
an  individual's  response  to  a  given  stimulus  is  determined  by  (a)  his 
past  experience  and  (£)  his  present  frame  of  mind. 

5.  The  teacher  must  be  sure  that  the  exercises  in  all  types  of 
learning  are  adapted  to  the  past  experience  and  stage  of  develop- 
ment of  the  student,  in  order  to  call  forth  the  desired  responses. 

6.  The  teacher  must  also  endeavor  to  put  the  student  in  the 
frame  of  mind  best  suited  to  the  particular  type  of  mental  response 
which  is  desired  or  expected  at  the  time. 

Explicit  treatment  to  supplement  earlier  references.  —  In 

this  chapter  we  shall  take  up  briefly  two  general  aspects  of 
the  learning  process,  namely,  self-activity  and  the  principle 
of  apperception.  These  aspects  have  been  referred  to  inci- 
dentally in  the  preceding  chapters  which  deal  with  special 
types  of  learning,  but  it  is  desirable  to  give  them  more  ex- 
plicit treatment  here  in  order  to  bring  out  their  more  general 
meaning  and  application. 

Self -activity :  student  is  educated  by  his  own  responses. 
-The  first  principle,  namely,  that  designated  by  the  term 

296 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION          297 

self-activity,  means  the  general  fact  that  students  are  educated 
by  their  own  mental  responses,  not  by  the  stimuli  or  influences 
provided  by  the  teacher.  The  latter  are  influential  in  deter- 
mining the  individual's  character  only  through  the  responses 
which  they  arouse.  If  the  desired  educative  response  is  not 
made  by  the  student's  mind,  the  stimulus  is  not  educative. 
Obvious  illustrations  are  found  by  comparing  the  responses 
of  students  who  are  inattentive  with  those  of  students  who  are 
alert,  thoughtful,  and  attentive.  In  both  cases  the  teacher's 
words  or  the  words  in  the  book  affect  the  sense  organs  in 
similar  ways.  In  the  case  of  the  inattentive  student,  however, 
the  words  "go  in  one  ear  and  out  the  other."  They  arouse 
little  mental  response ;  hence  they  are  not  grasped  or  re- 
tained. On  the  other  hand,  the  alert,  attentive  student  re- 
sponds actively  by  grasping  the  stimulus  and  working  it 
over.  His  mental  response  is  large  or  intense,  and,  if  worth 
while,  it  is  educative. 

Self -activity  in  various  types  of  learning.  Motor  skill.  — 
As  stated  above,  this  influence  of  the  student's  own  responses 
has  been  referred  to  in  the  discussion  of  each  special  type  of 
learning.  Thus,  in  acquiring  motor  skill  it  is  obvious  that  the 
student  learns  through  doing — for  example,  by  actual  practice 
in  tossing  balls  or  using  the  typewriter.  However,  it  is  not 
simply  the  physical  act  that  develops  his  skill,  but  the  mental 
control.  A  student  would  make  little  progress  from  simply 
having  the  teacher  hold  his  (the  student's)  hands  or  fingers 
and  put  them  through  the  movements.  This  is  evident  to 
a  learner  when  someone  tries  to  teach  him  a  tennis  or  golf 
or  swimming  stroke  by  guiding  his  arms.  It  may  help  some- 
what in  enabling  the  individual  to  recognize  the  desired  move- 
ment when  he  succeeds  in  making  it  by  trial  and  error.  This 
was  shown  by  Bair's  experiments  on  electrically  stimulating 
the  movements  of  the  ears  (see  above,  p.  103).  But  such  a 
stimulation  did  not  enable  the  learner  to  proceed  to  make  the 
movement.  It  did  help  him  to  recognize  and  select  it  after 


298  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

he  had  succeeded  in  making  it  as  the  result  of  trial  and  error. 
In  general,  the  mental  impulse  to  the  movement  and  the 
critical  evaluation,  by  the  learner,  of  its  form  and  result  are 
the  important  factors  in  acquiring  motor  skill  and  are  clear 
illustrations  of  the  principle  of  self-activity. 

Learning  a  vocabulary.  —  Similarly,  in  learning  a  foreign 
language  by  the  direct  method  it  is  not  sufficient  simply  to 
provide  the  proper  stimulus,  namely,  "  meaning  plus  foreign 
symbol."  It  is  desirable  that  the  student  have  abundant  oppor- 
tunity to  initiate  the  response  "foreign  symbol"  to  a  meaning 
which  he  has  in  mind  to  express,  or  to  initiate  the  response 
"  meaning"  to  a  foreign  symbol  which  has  been  presented  (see 
above,  p.  125,  for  diagrams).  Although  these  ends  can  be  se- 
cured by  silent  study,  they  are  most  surely  secured  by  giving 
students  ample  opportunities  to  speak  the  foreign  tongue. 
Hence,  we  noted  that  the  teacher  of  a  foreign  language  should 
suppress  any  tendency  to  monopolize  the  time  in  class  and 
should  make  all  students  talk  as  much  as  possible. 

Practice.  —  In  our  discussion  of  practice  or  drill  we  noticed 
that  progress  in  learning  was  rapid  only  when  the  learner 
was  concentrating  his  attention  on  the  process  —  that  is,  when 
his  mental  response  was  active  and  intense.  Mere  mechanical 
fingering  of  the  typewriter  did  not  increase  his  speed.  Simi- 
larly, in  memorizing,  we  noticed  that  all  conditions  which 
increased  the  concentration  of  attention  increased  corre- 
spondingly the  speed  or  economy  in  learning. 

Reflective  thinking. —  In  discussing  reflective  thinking  we 
noted  especially  the  necessity  of  giving  the  slow  pupils  op- 
portunity to  do  active  problem-solving  and  analytical  selective 
thinking.  In  teaching  geometry,  for  example,  if  we  desire 
to  secure  training  in  reasoning  we  must  get  the  pupils  to  be 
self-actively  reasoning  (that  is,  to  be  making  mental  responses 
of  this  type).  This  can  be  done  only  by  proceeding  through 
the  first  book  of  the  geometry  very  slowly,  treating  most  prop- 
ositions as  exercises  or  problems  to  be  solved,  not  merely 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION         299 

as  proofs  to  be  learned.  When  the  ordinary  method  of  merely 
having  students  learn  the  proofs  or  demonstrations  is  followed, 
the  alert,  rapid,  original  thinker  may  anticipate  or  supplement 
the  reasoning  done  by  the  teacher  or  outlined  in  the  textbook 
to  such  an  extent  that  he  is  constantly  making  the  reasoned 
mental  responses  which  are  contemplated  in  the  training. 
This  is  not  the  case,  however,  with  the  slow,  unoriginal 
thinker  who  merely  memorizes  the  proofs. 

Acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment. —  In  discussing  the  devel- 
opment of  habits  of  enjoyment  we  noted  that  actual  mental 
responses  of  enjoyment  are  the  essential  factor  throughout 
the  process  —  not  some  other  type  of  response,  such  as  in- 
formation, or  conversation,  or  disgust. 

Training  in  expression.  —  Similarly,  in  discussing  training 
in  expression,  in  the  immediately  preceding  chapter,  it  was 
shown  that  the  essential  educative  situation  is  "  the  student 
with  ideas  of  his  own  to  express  plus  independent  recall  of 
words  with  which  to  express  them  "  ;  that  is,  the  essential 
educative  mental  response  in  training  in  expression  is  the 
making,  by  the  student,  of  the  connection  between  ideas  and 
words.  Unless  he  is  self-actively  doing  this,  he  is  not  securing 
economical  effective  training  in  expression. 

To  recapitulate,  in  various  types  of  training  we  wish  to 
secure  certain  special  forms  of  mental  response  —  control  in 
motor  skill,  association  of  symbols  and  meanings,  reflective 
thinking,  enjoyment,  expression.  In  applying  the  principle 
of  self-activity  we  must  make  sure  that  the  desired  response 
by  the  student  is  actually  made.  If  it  occurs  in  an  intense 
form  (that  is,  associated  with  zeal  and  concentration  of  atten- 
tion), it  is  more  effective. 

Student's  words  often  unreliable  evidence  of  his  mental 
activity.  —  Ordinarily,  in  teaching  that  aims  to  secure  re- 
sponses of  meaning,  or  active  reflective  thought,  or  enjoy- 
ment, or  expression,  the  teacher  must  judge,  by  the  words 
which  the  student  utters,  whether  the  desired  mental  response 


300  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

has  been  made ;  that  is,  the  student  speaks  or  writes,  and  the 
teacher  infers  from  this  that  a  certain  type  of  mental  response 
has  preceded.  Very  often  the  inference  by  the  teacher  is  in- 
correct. Thus,  a  student  repeats  the  definition  of  a  technical 
abstract  term.  The  teacher  assumes  that  he  has  its  meaning 
in  mind,  but  this  may  not  be  true.  In  geometry  a  student 
reproduces  a  geometry  proof.  It  is  generally  assumed  that 
he  has  made  the  desired  mental  response,  namely,  reflective 
thinking.  Very  commonly  he  has  not ;  instead  he  has  simply 
memorized  figures,  words,  and  other  symbols.  While  aim- 
ing to  secure  enjoyment  the  teacher  gets  from  the  student 
information  about  a  book  and  assumes  that  it  is  evidence 
of  enjoyment.  The  emotional  response  may  have  been  just 
the  opposite.  In  training  in  composition,  a  student  hands 
in  a  theme  and  the  teacher  assumes  that  it  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  student's  own  experiences  or  ideas,  in  his  own 
words ;  instead,  it  may  be  simply  a  copy  of  material  found 
in  a  book. 

Teacher  must  skillfully  keep  check  on  individual's  re- 
sponses. —  In  view  of  these  facts  the  teacher  must  be  con- 
stantly alert  to  make  sure  that  the  desired  mental  response  is 
made  by  every  pupil.  To  do  this  requires  great  skill  and 
ingenuity,  and  a  large  part  of  the  time  spent  in  school  should 
be  devoted  to  getting  a  check  upon  and  directing  the 
mental  responses  of  individuals.  The  methods  of  doing  this 
economically  and  effectively  will  be  discussed  in  later  chapters 
on  individual  instruction  and  supervised  study. 

Apperception :  response  determined  by  past  experience  and 
by  present  frame  of  mind.  —  The  responses  which  a  student 
makes  will  depend  upon  two  factors;  namely,  (i)  his  past  ex- 
perience and  (2)  his  present  frame  of  mind.  This  statement 
is  known  as  the  principle  of  apperception,  and  the  teacher 
should  keep  it  constantly  in  mind  in  planning  and  adminis- 
tering instruction  which  is  intended  to  secure  certain  specific 
educative  responses. 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION          301 

Illustrated  by  varied  interpretations  of  words.  —  A  few 
examples  will  make  clear  the  influence  of  the  two  factors ; 
namely,  past  experience  and  the  present  frame  of  mind. 
The  influence  of  past  experience  in  determining  the  re- 
sponses to  a  given  stimulus  is  commonly  illustrated  by  the 
different  mental  responses  made  to  the  same  word  by  persons 
of  different  training.  A  stock  example  is  the  interpretation 
of  the  word  bay  when  heard  by  a  horse  dealer,  a  carpenter, 
a  boy  studying  geography,  and  a  student  of  domestic  science 
(the  latter  may  think  of  the  bay  leaf  used  in  seasoning).  The 
influence  of  the  present  frame  of  mind  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  same  word,  because  we  can  be  sure  of  quite  similar  mental 
responses  from  all  of  these  persons  if  we  say,  "  Students  in 
geography  must  be  able  to  define  lake,  river,  bay,  etc."  The 
first  part  of  the  sentence  tends  to  put  them  in  similar  frames 
of  mind,  so  that  they  all  think  of  bay  as  a  body  of  water.  The 
student  can  readily  think  of  many  other  homonyms  that  will 
illustrate  the  same  general  fact  of  apperception. 

Emotional  responses  also  illustrate  apperception.  —  Other 
types  of  mental  response  than  the  intellectual  may  also  be 
used  to  illustrate  the  principle  of  apperception.  For  example, 
owing  to  differences  in  previous  experience,  the  emotional 
responses  aroused  in  the  minds  of  Northerners  and  South- 
erners during  the  Civil  War  were  quite  different  when  such 
words  as  Lincoln,  Jefferson  Davis,  abolition,  states  rights, 
etc.  were  heard.  The  influence  of  the  present  frame  of  mind 
in  determining  an  emotional  response  is  shown  by  the  type 
of  casual  greeting  extended  to  a  friend  when  meeting  him 
during  the  hurly-burly  of  business  hours,  as  contrasted  with 
the  enthusiastic,  interested  attitude  when  meeting  him  during 
leisure  time. 

Influence  of  past  experience.  Teacher  mtist  consider  the 
student's  vocabulary.  —  The  first  pedagogical  point  to  notice 
in  connection  with  the  principle  of  apperception  is  that  the 
teacher  should  carefully  ascertain  whether  students  have  had 


302  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  past  experience  necessary  to  provide  the  desired  re- 
sponses. This  is  most  easily  illustrated  in  connection  with 
students  understanding  the  meanings  of  words  used  in  in- 
struction. The  vocabularies  of  students  of  different  ages 
and  training  vary  enormously,  and  a  teacher  often  fails  to 
realize  that  words  which  he  understands  are  strange  to  the 
students.  Consider,  for  example,  the  following  ordinary 
words,  which  are  arranged  roughly  in  the  order  of  decreas- 
ing familiarity :  pink,  fifty,  anger,  sympathy,  number,  dumb- 
waiter, pollen,  virtue,  justice,  momentum,  aftermath,  scenario, 
scholasticism,  nominalism,  fourth  dimension,  apperception. 
A  college  graduate  would  probably  understand  all  of  these 
and  be  able  to  use  most  of  them,  but  most  high-school  stu- 
dents would  lack  the  past  experience  necessary  to  an  under- 
standing of  several  of  the  words  toward  the  end  of  the  list. 
Some  children  entering  the  primary  grades  might  not  under- 
stand any  of  them. 

Meanings  of  words  are  secured  only  through  relevant 
experiences.  —  The  general  fact  concerning  the  dependence 
upon  experience  for  the  meanings  of  words  is  discussed  by 
Dewey  as  follows  : 

[Words  or  symbols]  stand  for  [their]  meanings  to  any  individual 
only  when  he  has  had  experience  of  some  situation  to  which  these 
meanings  are  actually  relevant.  Words  can  detach  and  preserve 
a  meaning  only  when  the  meaning  has  been  first  involved  in  our 
own  direct  intercourse  with  things.  To  attempt  to  give  a  meaning 
through  a  word  alone,  without  any  dealings  with  a  thing,  is  to  de- 
prive the  word  of  intelligible  signification ;  against  this  attempt  (a 
tendency  only  too  prevalent  in  education)  reformers  have  protested. 
Moreover,  there  is  a  tendency  to  assume  that  whenever  there  is  a 
definite  word  or  form  of  speech  there  is  also  a  definite  idea,  while, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  adults  and  children  alike  are  capable  of  using 
even  precise  verbal  formulae  with  only  the  vaguest  and  most  con- 
fused sense  of  what  they  mean.  Genuine  ignorance  is  more  profit- 
able because  likely  to  be  accompanied  by  humility,  curiosity,  and 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION         303 

open-mindedness,  while  ability  to  repeat  catch  phrases,  cant  terms, 
familiar  propositions,  gives  the  conceit  of  learning  and  coats  the 
mind  with  a  varnish  waterproof  to  new  ideas.  (4  :  176-177) 

Examples  of  misinterpretation  of  historical  statement.  — 
There  are  hundreds  of  current  examples  of  the  failure  of 
students  to  get  the  meanings  of  statements  which  they  learn 
in  their  lessons  and  recite  glibly  to  the  teacher.  For  instance, 
a  prominent  American  educator  relates  that  in  the  upper 
grades  of  the  elementary  school  he  learned  the  statement 
that  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  fastened  slavery  upon 
the  South.  The  only  gin  of  which  he  had  any  knowledge 
was  the  liquor  to  which  he  had  heard  his  parents  refer  as 
being  a  terrible  thing  to  drink.  Hence  he  concluded  that  the 
invention  of  a  liquor  made  from  cotton,  which  was  known 
as  cotton  gin  and  drunk  by  the  negroes,  somehow  fastened 
slavery  upon  the  South.  In  later  years  he  contrasted  the  way 
he  was  taught  with  the  modern  method  of  making  clear  to 
students  the  difficulties  of  separating  cotton  from  the  seeds  and 
the  various  stages  in  the  development  of  ginning  machinery. 

All  instruction  must  be  adapted  to  experience  and  develop- 
ment of  students.  —  The  phase  of  the  principle  of  appercep- 
tion which  we  have  been  discussing  is  easily  applied  in  detail  to 
high-school  instruction.  Since  all  instruction  must  be  adapted 
to  the  past  experience  of  the  students,  we  must  make  sure 
that  they  have  had  the  detailed  personal  experiences  necessary 
to  enable  them  to  grasp  the  abstract  and  general  meanings 
which  we  may  be  trying  to  teach ;  that  the  problems  which 
we  expect  them  to  solve  involve  relationships  with  which  they 
are  familiar  and  which  are  within  the  range  of  their  ability ; 
that  the  music  and  literature  which  they  are  expected  to  enjoy 
are  adapted  to  the  stage  of  development  that  they  have  reached, 
that  is,  are  built  upon  the  habits  of  enjoyment  which  they 
already  possess  ;  and  that  topics  for  themes  are  drawn  from 
the  typical  activities  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls. 


304  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Endeavor  to  titilize  out-of-school  experiences.  —  To  make 
these  applications  skillfully  it  is  necessary  for  the  high-school 
teacher  to  become  a  close  student  of  the  characteristics  and 
experiences  of  high-school  students,  not  only  in  school  but 
out  of  school.  The  necessity  of  linking  up  instruction  with 
out-of-school  experiences  is  emphasized  by  Dewey  in  the 
following  quotation : 

All  students  of  psychology  are  familiar  with  the  principle  of  ap- 
perception —  that  we  assimilate  new  material  with  what  we  have 
digested  and  retained  from  prior  experiences.  Now  the  "  apper- 
ceptive  basis  "  of  material  furnished  by  teacher  and  textbook  should 
be  found  as  far  as  possible  in  what  the  learner  has  derived  from 
more  direct  forms  of  his  own  experience.  There  is  a  tendency  to 
connect  material  of  the  schoolroom  simply  with  the  material  of 
prior  school  lessons,  instead  of  linking  it  to  what  the  pupil  has 
acquired  in  his  out-of-school  experience.  The  teacher  says,  "  Do 
you  not  remember  what  we  learned  from  the  book  last  week  ? "  in- 
stead of  saying,  "  Do  you  not  recall  such  and  such  a  thing  that 
you  have  seen  or  heard  ? "  As  a  result  there  are  built  up  de- 
tached and  independent  systems  of  school  knowledge  that  inertly 
overlay  the  ordinary  systems  of  experience  instead  of  reacting  to 
enlarge  and  refine  them.  Pupils  are  taught  to  live  in  two  separate 
worlds,  one  the  world  of  out-of-school  experience,  the  other  the 
world  of  books  and  lessons.  (4  :  199) 

Influence  of  present  frame  of  mind.  Example  of  mistake 
in  reading.  —  We  shall  now  turn  from  the  discussion  of  the 
influence  of  past  experience  to  a  consideration  of  the  second 
factor  in  determining  a  person's  response  to  a  situation ;  namely, 
his  present  frame  of  mind.  This  was  illustrated  above  in  con- 
nection with  the  word  &zj,but  additional  examples  maybe  given 
here  to  assist  in  getting  the  idea  clearly  in  mind.  The  following 
incident  from  my  own  experience  will  serve  this  purpose. 

I  was  riding  in  a  train  and  happened  to  look  over  the  shoulder 
of  the  man  in  front  of  me  at  the  newspaper  which  he  was  reading. 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION         3°5 

I  could  just  see  the  top  of  the  paper  and  read  there  the  following 
large  headline,  extending  clear  across  the  page  : 

GOOD   HATS  A  QUARTER 

Inasmuch  as  I  always  take  advantage  of  end-of-the-season  reduc- 
tion sales  of  men's  furnishings,  this  statement  interested  me  (al- 
though good  hats  for  a  quarter  seemed  impossible)  and  I  decided 
to  look  into  the  matter  further  when  I  got  a  chance.  Soon  the  man 
left  his  seat  to  go  into  the  smoking  car.  I  picked  up  his  paper  and, 
turning  to  the  desired  page,  found  that  instead  of  reading 

GOOD   HATS  A  QUARTER 

the  headline  read 

GOD   HATES  A  QUITTER 

It  was  Monday  morning,  and  the  paper  in  question  contained 
reports  of  Sunday  sermons  printed  with  large-type  headlines  run- 
ning clear  across  the  page.  If  I  had  been  in  the  religious  frame 
of  mind  at  the  time,  instead  of  the  bargain-hunting  frame  of  mind, 
I  might  have  read  the  headline  correctly  at  the  first  glance. 

Present  mental  background  determines  interpretation.  — 
The  whole  matter  of  the  influence  of  mental  backgrounds 
upon  the  interpretation  of  a  given  stimulus  is  well  discussed 
by  Adams  in  his  "  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching." 
He  says  that  an  idea 

must  take  a  different  meaning  according  to  the  mental  background 
against  which  it  is  projected.  The  presented  content  may  be  quite 
neutral  or  it  may  have  a  positive  tone  of  its  own  [to  use  terms  bor- 
rowed from  the  field  of  color].  In  both  cases  the  new  idea  or  ideas 
must  submit  to  a  modification  of  tone  or  meaning  from  the  effect 
of  the  background. 

Take  some  such  colorless  sentence  as  "  Think  of  him,"  and 
note  the  difference  effected  by  projecting  it  against  the  following 
backgrounds : 

A  picture  in  Life  of  a  low-class  photographer  trying  to  encourage 
a  pleasant  expression  on  his  female  sitter's  face. 

A  widow  laying  flowers  on  a  grave  and  addressing  her  little  girl 


306  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

A  religious  revival  meeting. 

A  French  schoolmaster  during  the  Franco-Prussian  War  pointing 
to  a  portrait  of  the  first  Napoleon. 

A  conspirators'  meeting  where  a  traitor's  name  has  been 
mentioned. 

A  crowd  of  starving  "  unemployed  "  watching  the  mayor  pass 
from  his  carriage  to  a  city  banquet.  (1  :  93) 

Examples  of  students  misinterpreting  questions.  —  Peda- 
gogical examples  of  the  principle  that  an  individual's  men- 
tal response  is  influenced  by  his  present  frame  of  mind  are 
numerous.  Even  when  the  students  have  had  the  adequate 
past  experience  for  making  the  desired  response,  it  is  often 
not  secured  by  the  teacher,  because  the  present  mental 
conditions  are  unfavorable.  Hence,  Adams  says  : 

Young  teachers  in  particular  soon  discover  that  their  questions 
do  not  produce  the  answers  they  were  intended  to  elicit.  A  ques- 
tion is  asked,  for  example,  the  answer  to  which  is  known  to  be 
within  the  range  of  the  pupil's  knowledge.  There  is  no  doubt 
about  the  matter.  The  teacher  knows  from  immediately  preceding 
experience  that  the  answer  is  in  the  pupil's  mind  only  waiting  to 
be  drawn  out.  Indeed,  the  question  may  be  fairly  regarded  as 
nothing  more  than  a  stage  in  the  process  of  making  clear  and  dis- 
tinct an  idea  that  the  pupil  already  possesses,  though  in  a  vague 
way.  The  question  is,  however,  so  expressed  that  the  pupil,  with 
the  best  intention  in  the  world,  cannot  discover  against  which  back- 
ground he  is  expected  to  project  the  ideas  concerned.  Accordingly 
he  projects  them  against  the  first  available  background,  in  the  hope 
that  this  may  be  the  right  one. 

"  Where  was  St.  Paul  converted  ? "  asks  the  teacher,  speaking 
from  a  geographical  background.  "  In  the  ninth  chapter  of  the 
Acts,"  responds  the  pupil,  from  a  background  of  textual  reference. 
In  testing  the  intelligence  of  a  class  the  inspector  asks,  "  Where 
do  you  find  gates  ? "  The  pupil,  from  a  background  made  up  of 
puzzling  experiences  of  the  Socratic  method,  answers  :  "  We  don't 
find  gates ;  we  make  them."  From  a  historico-geographical  back- 
ground the  inspector  desired  to  elicit  the  deleterious  effect  of  a 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION         307 

large  town  on  the  purity  of  a  river.  He  brought  out  the  fact  that 
Robert  the  Bruce  [1274-1329]  spent  his  latter  years  at  Roseneath 
on  the  Clyde  in  Scotland,  and  that  as  a  recreation  he  very  prob- 
ably —  according  to  the  inspector  —  fished  in  the  river.  The  ques- 
tion that  was  to  incriminate  those  who  were  responsible  for  the 
pollution  of  the  Clyde  took  the  form,  "  Why  could  n't  the  Bruce 
fish  there  now  ? "  From  a  background  of  plain  common  sense 
came  the  reply,  "  Because  he 's  dead."  (1 :  96) 

Teacher  must  put  students  in  proper  frame  of  mind. — 

These  examples  make  it  evident  that  it  is  the  teacher's  busi- 
ness to  see  that  pupils  are  put  into  the  proper  frame  of  mind 
to  make  the  general  type  of  educative  responses  that  he  de- 
sires. This  is  particularly  important  (i)  at  the  beginning  of 
a  period  of  instruction,  (2)  in  taking  up  a  new  topic,  (3)  in 
making  transitions  in  the  continuous  treatment  of  a  topic. 
In  the  case  of  intellectual  instruction  such  a  preparation  of 
the  pupil's  mind  commonly  involves  an  introductory  or  tran- 
sitional discussion  which  will  inform  the  students  concerning 
the  purposes  of  the  lesson,  the  problems  to  be  discussed,  their 
general  significance  or  bearing,  etc.  This  notion  of  prepara- 
tion was  especially  emphasized  by  Herbart  (1776-1841),  the 
great  German  educational  reformer,  and  by  his  followers.  One 
of  Herbart 's  statements  concerning  the  matter  is  the  following : 

A  rule  of  vital  importance  is  that,  before  setting  his  pupils  at 
work,  the  teacher  should  take  them  into  the  field  of  ideas  wherein 
their  work  is  to  be  done.  He  can  accomplish  this  at  the  beginning 
of  a  recitation  hour  by  means  of  a  brief  outline  view  of  the  ground 
to  be  covered  in  the  lesson  or  lecture. 

Preparatory  step  may  include  discussion  of  purpose  of 
lesson.  —  The  technique  of  the  initial,  or  preparatory,  step 
in  the  teaching  of  lessons  has  been  very  extensively  discussed 
by  the  followers  of  Herbart.  Their  contention  has  usually 
taken  the  form  of  an  assertion  that  the  aim  of  the  lesson 
should  be  stated  at  the  beginning  and  should  be  considered 


308  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

until  it  is  clearly  appreciated  by  the  students.  If  this  conten- 
tion is  interpreted  in  a  common-sense  way  and  the  discussion 
of  the  aim  provided  when  necessary,  it  establishes  a  good 
practice.  Sometimes,  however,  the  idea  is  carried  out  so 
formally  and  insistently  that  the  real  psychological  purpose 
of  the  step  is  lost  sight  of  and  it  becomes  a  mere  pedagogic 
rite.  As  an  extreme  example  of  such  a  situation  Adams 
cites  the  case  of  a  German  Herbartian  teacher  who  began 
with  the  following  statement  of  the  aim:  "Our  object  in 
to-day's  lesson  is  to  see  what  happened  next." 

Student  should  know  whither  he  is  going. — The  following 
rule  stated  by  Adams  presents  a  safe  and  desirable  basis  for 
administering  the  step  of  preparation.  "  The  essential  point 
is  that  the  pupil  should  know  whither  he  is  going,  so  that  he 
may  cooperate  with  the  teacher  and  do  his  fair  share  of  the 
work."  Very  often  students  at  the  beginning  of  a  period  will 
have  in  mind  the  discussion  that  is  to  be  continued  from  a 
previous  period,  and  will  take  up  and  pursue  the  line  of 
thought  effectively  without  a  restatement  of  the  aim  of  the 
discussion.  The  teacher,  however,  should  always  remember 
to  make  sure  that  the  appropriate  initial  mental  attitude  does 
exist  as  described  by  Adams. 

In  reflective  thought  the  problem  miist  be  realized.  —  The 
importance  of  keeping  the  aim  of  the  lesson  clearly  in  mind 
when  the  purpose  is  the  solution  of  a  problem  has  already 
been  discussed  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  reflective  thinking 
(see  p.  185)  and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  The  following 
statement  from  Dewey's  "  How  We  Think  "  will  serve  to 
recall  to  the  student  the  general  point  of  departure  for 
instruction  which  involves  reflective  thought. 

The  best,  indeed  the  only,  preparation  is  arousal  to  a  perception 
of  something  that  needs  explanation — something  unexpected,  puz- 
zling, peculiar.  When  the  feeling  of  a  genuine  perplexity  lays  hold 
of  any  mind  (no  matter  how  the  feeling  arises),  that  mind  is  alert 
and  inquiring,  because  stimulated  from  within.  The  shock,  the  bite, 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION         309 

of  a  question  will  force  the  mind  to  go  wherever  it  is  capable  of 
going,  better  than  will  the  most  ingenious  pedagogical  devices  un- 
accompanied by  this  mental  ardor.  It  is  the  sense  of  a  problem 
that  forces  the  mind  to  a  survey  and  recall  of  the  past  to  discover 
what  the  question  means  and  how  it  may  be  dealt  with.  (4 :  207) 

Avoid  undesirable  elaboration  of  preparatory  step.  —  Dewey 
continues  his  discussion  by  giving  certain  cautions  concerning 
the  tendency  to  elaborate  the  preparatory  step  beyond  reason- 
able limits.  The  teacher  or  reader  who  is  interested  in  a  more 
thorough  critical  treatment  of  this  phase  of  method  should 
read  Dewey's  discussion  and  compare  it  with  pages  81-117 
in  McMurry's  "Method  of  the  Recitation." 

Main  issue  or  problem  not  always  approached  directly.  — 
Adams,  writing  in  1910,  presents  some  examples  to  show 
that  even  in  reflective  thinking  or  problem-solving  the  main 
issue  need  not  always  be  presented  at  the  beginning,  but  in- 
stead some  minor  problem  may  be  taken  up  which  will  serve 
as  a  more  interesting  or  significant  approach  to  the  main 
issue  than  would  a  direct  statement  of  the  main  problem  in 
its  abstract  form.  Thus,  he  says : 

The  expositor  [the  teacher  in  this  case]  wishes  to  produce  a 
certain  arrangement  of  ideas  in  the  mind  of  another ;  the  begin- 
ning that  lends  itself  best  to  the  production  of  this  arrangement  is 
the  best. 

The  teacher  in  an  English  school  begins,  for  instance,  with  a 
blackboard  full  of  figures  from  the  Board  of  Trade  returns  for  the 
past  ten  years,  from  which  the  pupils  are  invited  to  discover  which 
are  Britain's  best  customers  in  the  matter  of  buying  her  goods. 
Various  ups  and  downs  are  noticed  and  causes  suggested.  One 
sudden  fall  is  unaccounted  for.  Toward  the  end  of  1906  Italy  be- 
gan to  buy  a  good  deal  less  from  Britain.  The  fall  is  not  temporary, 
for  there  has  been  no  corresponding  rise  since.  Italy  is  not  hostile 
to  Britain ;  rather  the  contrary.  The  cause  must  be  sought  else- 
where. More  figures  are  submitted,  from  which  it  appears  that 
what  Britain  has  lost,  Germany  has  gained.  But  why  this  sudden 


310  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

change?  Germany  is  no  nearer  Italy  than  it  was  before;  there 
has  been  no  quarrel  with  British  goods ;  the  Germans  may  be  better 
at  pushing  goods,  but  there  was  no  sudden  increase  in  their  su- 
periority at  that  time.  Gradually  the  search  is  narrowed  down  to 
something  peculiar  that  belonged  to  that  year,  and  the  opening  of 
the  Simplon  Tunnel  [through  the  Alps]  in  May,  1906,  is  sug- 
gested. Since  this  beginning  occurs  in  a  lesson  in  commercial 
geography,  the  tunnel  is  approached  from  the  proper  point.  .  .  . 

A  problem  of  this  kind  is  often  an  excellent  way  of  beginning 
an  exposition.  Instead  of  starting  straightway  with  the  subject  of 
the  difference  between  the  development  of  the  feudal  system  in 
England  and  in  France,  the  problem  might  be  suggested,  Why  are 
there  hedgerows  in  England  and  not  in  France  ?  In  answering  this 
interesting  question  all  the  essential  points  of  difference  emerge; 
and  the  incentive  of  a  well-defined  purpose  is  maintained  through- 
out the  lesson.  (1:  181-182) 

Preparatory  step  in  other  types  of  learning.  —  The  ex- 
amples so  far  given  have  practically  all  been  illustrations  of 
putting  the  pupil  in  the  right  frame  of  mind  for  reflective 
thinking.  This  is  the  type  of  learning  that  is  commonly 
stressed  in  discussions  of  the  preparatory  step  in  the  giving 
of  lessons.  What  shall  be  said,  however,  about  the  other 
four  types  of  learning  which  we  discussed ;  namely,  acquiring 
motor  skill,  learning  a  foreign  vocabulary,  acquiring  habits 
of  enjoyment,  and  training  in  expression  ?  Obviously,  the 
clear  realization  of  a  problem  to  be  solved  is  not  usually  the 
proper  initial  frame  of  mind  for  instruction  along  these  lines, 

Motor  skill  and  learning  a  foreign  vocabulary.  —  In  the 
cases  of  acquiring  motor  skill  and  learning  a  vocabulary  the 
mental  conditions  which  are  favorable  to  securing  the  desired 
responses  are  primarily  those  of  attention  and  interest  in  im- 
provement. If  a  person  who  is  learning  to  play  golf  or  use 
a  typewriter,  or  who  is  learning  to  speak  German,  can  be 
brought  to  attack  the  situation  with  interest  and  concentra- 
tion of  attention,  this  is  about  all  that  can  be  done  to  put  him 
into  the  right  frame  of  mind. 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION         311 

Enjoyment. — In  the  case  of  forming  habits  of  enjoyment, 
again  it  is  primarily  a  matter  of  putting  the  learner  in  the 
right  general  mood.  The  general  emotional  atmosphere  of 
the  schoolroom  should  be  that  of  pleasant  entertainment. 
Certainly  a  generally  sour,  fault-finding,  ill-tempered  attitude 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  would  interfere  seriously  with  the 
arousal  of  the  responses  of  enjoyment  which  are  contem- 
plated in  the  training.  In  the  chapter  on  acquiring  habits 
of  enjoyment  this  influence  of  the  teacher's  attitude  was 
discussed  at  length.  Perhaps  the  best  condition  is  that 
indicated  by  an  English  teacher  who  said  to  me  in  the 
hall  after  class,  "  We  had  a  good  time  with  one  of  Shelley's 
poems  in  that  class  to-day."  As  for  securing  the  more  deli- 
cate or  refined  emotional  effects  which  are  possible  in  con- 
nection with  literature,  the  teacher  has  the  same  opportunities 
that  a  skilled  dramatist  or  actor  has  in  developing  a  general 
mental  setting,  or  background,  that  will  be  favorable  to  bring- 
ing out  the  specific  emotional  responses  desired  from  the 
pupils  at  various  points  in  the  reading.  Very  often  the  teach- 
ing can  be  made  much  more  effective  by  making  sure  of  such 
a  mental  setting  at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  before  actually 
undertaking  the  reading.  An  example  of  such  a  treatment  of 
Gray's  "  Elegy  written  in  a  Country  Churchyard  "  is  given 
in  McMurry's  "  Method  of  the  Recitation"  (pp.  86-88).  Con- 
cerning the  nature  of  the  mental  setting,  or  background,  to 
be  arranged  for  any  particular  piece  of  literature  there  would 
probably  be  considerable  disagreement  among  teachers,  but 
this  fact  does  not  controvert  the  general  desirability  of  en- 
deavoring to  put  students  into  the  proper  frame  of  mind  to 
facilitate  the  emotional  responses  which  are  desired.  Favor- 
able mental  conditions  for  enjoying  music,  games,  dancing, 
etc.  might  be  considered  by  readers  interested  in  these  lines. 

Expression.  —  As  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  in 
training  in  expression  the  essential  frame  of  mind  in  which 
to  put  the  student  is  one  in  which  he  feels  that  he  has 


312  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

information  or  interpretation  which  he  is  interested  in  com- 
municating effectively  to  an  audience  as  being  of  interest  to 
them  and  worthy  of  their  attention.  To  secure  this  mental 
condition  upon  the  part  of  each  student  requires  special  skill 
of  teachers,  and  some  possess  a  special  technique  of  assigning 
themes  so  as  to  produce  such  a  favorable  mental  attitude.  To 
secure  the  desired  attitude  in  the  cases  of  students  who  have 
little  talent  for  linguistic  expression  and  little  confidence  in 
themselves  is  indeed  a  work  of  pedagogical  art. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  self-activity  and  apperception. 
—  This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  closely  related 
principles  of  self-activity  and  apperception.  The  former 
designates  the  fact  that  it  is  the  pupil's  responses  that  edu- 
cate him ;  hence  the  teacher  must  be  skilled  in  assuring  the 
specific  mental  responses  desired  for  various  educational  pur- 
poses. The  second  principle,  that  of  apperception,  describes 
the  general  conditions  determining  the  responses  that  pupils 
will  make  ;  namely,  the  influences  of  (i)  past  experience  and 
(2)  the  present  frame  of  mind.  In  taking  account  of  the  first 
of  these  conditions  the  teacher  must  become  well  informed 
concerning  the  experiences  and  development  of  his  pupils  and 
see  that  the  instruction  is  adapted  to  these.  In  taking  account 
of  the  influence  of  the  second  factor,  namely,  the  present 
frame  of  mind,  the  teacher  will  endeavor  to  bring  about  in 
the  pupils  an  attitude  favorable  to  the  solving  of  a  problem, 
the  enjoyment  of  a  poem,  or  whatever  type  of  learning  may 
be  undertaken  at  the  time. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  ADAMS,  JOHN.    Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching.  (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1910.)  Pp.  91-144  and  167-186.  The  best  single 
reference.  Excellent  discussion  of  the  psychological  and  pedagogical  as- 
pects of  apperception,  with  many  practical  illustrations.  Interesting  style. 

2.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.    The  Educative  Process.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1905.)  Pp.  288-293.    Brief  discussion  of  putting  pupils  in  right 
frame  of  mind  and  stating  aim  of  lesson. 


SELF-ACTIVITY  AND  APPERCEPTION          313 

3.  CHARTERS,  W.  W.  Methods  of  Teaching.  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co., 
revised  edition,  1912.)    Critical  discussion  of  Herbartian  formal  steps, 
especially  preparation,  pp.  322-329.    Use  of  reviews  to  put  pupil  into 
proper  frame  of  mind,  pp.  355-364. 

4.  DEWEY,  JOHN.   How  We  Think.   (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,   1910.) 
Danger  of  teaching  words  without  meanings,  pp.  i  76-1 78  ;  appercep- 
tion, p.   1 99 ;  criticism  of  overemphasis  on  formal  statement  of  aim, 
pp.  201-208.    Important  reference. 

5.  McMuRRY,  F.  and  C.   The  Method  of  the  Recitation.  (The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1903.)    Pp.  77-117.    Elaborate  discussion  of  putting 
students  in  proper  frame  of  mind  and  of  characteristics  of  a  good  aim. 

6.  PARKER,   S.    C.     History  of  Modern  Elementary  Education. 
(Ginn  and  Company,   1912.)    Pp.  395-397.    Brief  historical  statement 
concerning  apperception. 

7.  STRAYER,  G.  D.    The  Teaching  Process.    (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany,   1911.)     Pp.    51-56.     Brief   discussion   of    Herbartian   step   of 
preparation. 

8.  THORNDIK.E,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seiler,  1906.) 
Pp.  39-50.   Illuminating  study  of  self-activity  and  apperception  by  means 
of  many  practical  problems  to  be  solved  by  students. 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XII,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,'1'1  pp.  EI58-EI 74.  These  pages 
include  portions  of  stenographic  reports  of  high-school  lessons,  cartoons, 
pictures,  and  a  poem  with  excerpts  from  textbooks  in  mathematics  and 
history  to  illustrate  apperception  and  preparation  in  teaching. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  It  is  commonly  maintained 
that  the  age  from  six  to  fourteen  is  the  best  age  for  learning  a 
language  and  for  acquiring  motor  skill,  and  that  adolescence  is 
the  golden  age  for  reasoning. 

2.  In  opposition  to   this  general  point  of  view  this  chapter 
maintains  that  all  types  of  learning  are  important  at  all  ages. 

3.  On  the  basis  of  scientific  investigations  of  facility  in  memo- 
rizing, it  is  maintained  here  that  a  foreign  vocabulary  can  be  ac- 
quired as  economically  and  effectively  during  the  later  years  of  the 
period  from  six  to  eighteen  as  during  any  other  years  of  this  period. 

4.  Upon  grounds  of  social  economy  it  is  maintained  here  that 
the  learning  of  a  foreign  language  should  be  postponed  in  most 
cases  until  the  probabilities  become  large  that  the  students  who 
begin  it  will  eventually  use  it  as  a  practical  tool. 

5.  Upon  the  basis  of  experimental  investigations  it  is  main- 
tained here  that  children  in  the  elementary  school,  carry  on  reflec- 
tive, analytical,  abstract,  generalized,  reasoned  thinking  in  the  same 
general  manner  as  high-school  students  do ;  hence  the  general 
principles  of  training  in  reflective  thinking  apply  in  both  cases. 

6.  The  same  general  point  of  view  described  above  is  main- 
tained here  in  the  cases  of  training  in  enjoyment  and  training  in 
expression.  The  development  of  the  sex  instinct,  with  its  secondary 
characteristics  in  adolescence,  presents  an  additional  instinctive 
factor  which  must  be  considered  in  these  two  types  of  learning, 
but  it  does  not  modify  the  general  principles  of  such  learning. 

Do  students  at  different  ages  vary  in  ability  to  learn  ?  — 

A  phase  of  the  learning  process  that  needs  brief  consideration 
is  the  extent  to  which  different  types  of  learning  prevail  at 
different  ages,  and  the  extent  to  which  changes  in  the  capacity 

3H 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  315 

for  carrying  on  each  type  of  learning  occur  with  increasing 
age.  In  other  words,  is  there  any  age,  from  the  primary 
grades  to  high-school  graduation,  that  is  characterized  by 
marked  and  peculiar  superiority  in  the  capacity  to  acquire 
motor  skill  ?  to  learn  a  foreign  vocabulary  ?  to  reason  ?  to 
acquire  habits  of  enjoyment  ?  to  acquire  habits  of  expression  ? 

Is  age  from  six  to  twelve  for  acquisition  and  adolescence 
for  reasoning? — The  practical  importance  of  these  questions 
is  suggested  by  the  contention  of  some  educational  theorists 
that  younger  students  memorize  more  readily  than  older  stu- 
dents, and  that  children  do  not  reason  until  about  twelve  years 
of  age.  Upon  this  basis  they  argue  that  the  age  before  twelve 
is  the  age  for  acquisition,  and  that  instruction  then  should  be 
characterized  by  "  arbitrary  memorization,  drill,  and  habitua- 
tion,"  but  that  adolescence  is  the  golden  age  for  methods 
of  instruction  which  require  students  to  reason. 

Consider  each  type  of  learning.  —  We  shall  take  up  each 
type  of  learning  from  the  standpoint  of  the  influence  of  age, 
before  college  entrance,  upon  facility  of  learning.  In  some 
cases  we  shall  have  evidence  from  experimental  psychology 
to  present ;  in  other  cases  the  argument  presented  will  be 
largely  a  matter  of  opinion. 

Acquiring  motor  skill.  Ordinarily  assumed  that  younger 
students  learn  more  readily.  —  The  first  question  which  we 
shall  consider  is  this  :  Are  any  of  the  years  from  six  to 
eighteen  especially  favorable  for  learning  to  stvim,  to  play 
tennis  or  basket  ball,  to  manipulate  a  typewriter,  to  pronounce 
a  foreign  language  ?  The  ordinary  dogmatic  answer  has  been, 
in  the  cases  of  learning  to  swim  and  to  pronounce  a  foreign 
language,  that  the  learning  should  begin  in  childhood  (pre- 
sumably from  six  to  fourteen  years  of  age)  if  skill  is  to  be 
acquired  economically  and  effectively.  In  the  case  of  the 
other  activities  mentioned  we  have  little  published  opinion. 

Maintained  here  that  adolescence  is  as  favorable  for  motor 
learning.  —  In  opposition  to  the  ordinary  opinion  stated  above, 


316  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

we  shall  maintain  that,  of  the  years  from  six  to  eighteen.-  the 
later  years  are  just  as  favorable  for  acquiring  motor  skill  as  the 
earlier  ones.  To  be  specific,  the  same  individual,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  would  learn  to  speak  a  foreign  language 
as  effectively  and  economically  if  he  began  it  at  the  age  of 
sixteen  as  if  he  began  it  at  the  age  of  nine,  and  possibly 
more  so  at  the  more  advanced  age.  In  order  to  determine 
whether  this  opinion  or  the  opposite  is  true,  we  need  exper- 
imental data  (which,  unfortunately,  we  do  not  have)  from  some 
such  experiments  as  the  following :  Under  thoroughly  con- 
trolled, standardized  laboratory  conditions  (to  be  arranged  by 
competent  experimental  psychologists)  representative  groups 
of  learners  of  various  ages  (say  ten,  twelve,  fourteen,  six- 
teen, and  eighteen  years)  should  practice,  during  a  sufficiently 
long  period  of  time,  unfamiliar  motor  processes  of  the  same 
general  type  as  tennis  playing,  typewriting,  etc.  Exact 
objective  measurements  of  the  efficiency  of  all  performances 
should  be  kept  and  tabulated,  and  the  rates  of  learning 
for  the  groups  of  various  ages  compared.  The  comparative 
achievements  and  the  comparative  rates  of  learning  would 
give  us  a  valid  answer  to  our  problem. 

Arguments  in  favor  of  suggested  hypothesis.  —  In  view 
of  the  lack  of  such  precise  objective  evidence  I  shall  make 
the  following  points  in  favor  of  the  hypothesis  that  the  years 
from  fourteen  to  eighteen  are  as  favorable  for  acquiring  motor 
skill  as  the  years  from  six  to  fourteen. 

1 .  Brain  processes  favorable. — As  far  as  we  know,  during 
the  period  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  neurone  connections  are 
being  elaborated  in  the  brain  with  just  as  much  facility  as 
during  the  period  from  six  to  fourteen.    This  is  a  technical 
point  which  it  is  not  worth  while  to  expand  here,  and  the 
ordinary  student  need  not  pay  any  attention  to  it. 

2.  Older  students  may  have  better  methods  of  learning. 
—  As  students  grow  older  they  not  only  continue  to  learn 

but  they  may  learn  to  use  better  and  more  economical  methods 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  317 

of  learning.  Hence  we  should  expect  a  youth  of  eighteen 
years  to  have  acquired  better  methods  of  learning  than  a 
child  of  seven.  These  better  methods  would  enable  him  to 
acquire  motor  skill  more  readily.  For  example,  a  college  stu- 
dent might  consciously  apply  the  rule,  "  Be  sure  you  're  right ; 
then  go  ahead,"  but  a  child  might  disregard  it. 

3.  Skill  acquired  in  one  line  may  help  in  closely  related 
lines.  —  In  some  cases  motor  skill  acquired  in  one  process 
would  be  so  similar  to  that  required  in  another  process  taken 
up  later  that  the  former  might  help  considerably  in  the  latter. 
Thus,  a  boy  who  had  developed  skilled  finger  movements  in 
piano  playing  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  of  age  might  profit 
from  this  in  learning  a  touch  system  in  typewriting  at  the  age 
of  eighteen. 

4.  Complicating  factors  disregarded  in  ordinary  observa- 
tion. —  The   ordinary  conclusion   derived    from  comparing 
adolescent  learners  with  younger  children  may  fail  to  allow 
for  various  complicating  factors. 

a.  Judging  by  nonrepresentative,   extreme  cases.  —  The 
first  of  these  is  the  tendency  to  judge  by  nonrepresentative, 
extreme  cases  —  for  example,  in  the  case  of  learning  to  swim, 
to  compare  the  lad  who  naturally  "takes  to  water,"  and  learns 
when  young,  with  the  studious  chap  who  doesn't  care  for 
swimming  but  takes  it  up  in  his  college  days  as  a  means  of 
self-preservation  in  case  of  accident.    The  chances  are  that 
those  with  natural  zeal  and  aptitude  for  a  sport  like  swim- 
ming would  undertake  it  vigorously  when  young,  leaving  the 
less  apt  to  begin  later  in  life.    The  latter  then  appear  to  be 
slow  learners,  but  they  are  really  the  less  talented. 

b.  Overlook  large  amount  of  practice  in  childhood. — The 
second  complicating  factor  that  is  commonly  overlooked  is 
the  large  amount  of  practice  received  during  years  of  child- 
hood when  the  line  of  motor  activity  is  begun  early.    Thus, 
young  swimmers  will  go  in  swimming  twice  a  day  during 
the  summer,  every  day  in  the  season,  year  after  year,  while 


318  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  college  student  who  undertakes  to  learn  to  swim  in  the 
gymnasium  tank  gets  discouraged  if  he  doesn't  master  the 
art  after  one  lesson  a  week  for  ten  weeks.  The  same  may 
be  said  about  practice  in  learning  to  pronounce  a  foreign 
language.  The  instructor  who  compares  the  German  pro- 
nunciation of  a  college  German  class  at  the  end  of  one 
semester  unfavorably  with  the  German  pronunciation  of  chil- 
dren who  have  had  German  for  five  years  in  the  elementary 
school  usually  fails  to  make  allowance  for  the  much  longer 
practice  that  the  children  have  had. 

Social  needs  and  relations  of  subjects  are  determining 
factors.  —  These  points  would  seem  to  justify  accepting  as 
a  working  hypothesis  the  theory  that  there  is  little  or  no 
difference  in  the  natural  facility  with  which  motor  skill  is 
acquired  at  different  ages  from  six  to  eighteen  years.  Pro- 
ceeding on  this  basis,  we  would  contend  that  instruction  in 
swimming,  tennis  playing,  handwriting,  the  pronunciation  of 
a  foreign  language,  etc.  should  be  organized  with  little  regard 
to  the  differences  in  ability  to  learn  that  are  supposed  to  be 
characteristic  of  different  ages.  The  important  factors  deter- 
mining the  arrangement  for  such  instruction  are  (i)  the  social 
needs  of  students  at  different  ages,  (2)  the  relative  importance 
of  subjects,  (3)  their  interrelations  (that  is,  the  way  each  sub- 
ject will  contribute  to  the  learning  of  other  subjects),  (4)  the 
number  of  years  of  practice  necessary  to  master  a  given  form 
of  motor  skill,  (5)  the  chances  that  students  who  need  this 
form  of  skill  will  remain  in  school  long  enough  to  get  it,  etc. 

Learning  a  foreign  vocabulary.  Here  maintained  that 
later  years  are  as  favorable.  —  So  far  as  high-school  in- 
struction is  concerned,  the  most  important  practical  question 
raised  in  the  present  discussion  is  whether  the  ability  to  learn 
a  foreign  vocabulary  varies  with  age.  It  is  almost  universally 
claimed  that  a  student  must  begin  a  language  when  young  in 
order  to  learn  it  effectively  and  economically.  In  opposition 
to  this  theory,  we  shall  maintain,  as  in  the  case  of  motor 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING          319 

skill,  that  a  foreign  vocabulary  can  be  learned  just  as  eco- 
nomically at  the  later  end  of  the  period  from  six  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  as  at  any  other  part  of  it.  As  the  basis  for  this 
contention  we  have  some  very  closely  related  evidence  from 
experimental  psychology,  in  the  work  done  upon  facility  in 
memorizing  at  different  ages. 

Experiments  upon  memorizing  at  different  ages  give  evi- 
dence. —  Learning  a  foreign  vocabulary  is  largely  a  matter 
of  memorizing.  As  pointed  out  on  page  122,  in  learning  a 
foreign  vocabulary  a  person  makes  automatic  many  thousands 
of  new  associations  between  foreign  words,  or  symbols,  and 
their  meanings.  The  new  language  presents  a  vast  new  series 
of  associations  that  have  to  be  built  up.  The  automatizing  of 
these  is  pedagogically  a  matter  of  economical  and  effective 
memorizing.  Hence,  to  get  light  on  the  problem  of  the  best 
age  at  which  to  provide  instruction  in  learning  a  foreign 
vocabulary,  we  need  evidence  showing  how  well  students 
memorize  at  different  ages. 

Summaries  of  experiments  upon  'memorizing.  —  The  ex- 
perimental investigations  of  changes  with  age  in  ability  to 
memorize  are  summarized  in  accessible  form  in  a  number 
of  places.  One  of  these  summaries  is  found  in  the  books 
of  G.  Stanley  Hall,  namely,  in  his  "  Youth  "  (pp.  268-273) 
and  in  his  "Adolescence"  (Vol.  II,  pp.  488-492).  Some- 
what more  critical  summaries  are  found  in  Thorndike's 
"Elements  of  Child  Study"  (pp.  81-85)  an^  Kirkpatrick's 
"Fundamentals  of  Child  Study"  (pp.  254-255  and  268-271). 

Distinguish  temporary  learning  from  prolonged  retention. 
Mental  grasp.  —  Kirkpatrick,  in  his  summary  of  the  investi- 
gations in  question,  distinguishes  between  "increase  in  mental 
grasp,"  or  temporary  memory,  and  prolonged  memory.  Con- 
cerning increase  in  mental  grasp  he  says : 

The  experiments  of  Jacobs,  Jastrow,  Bolton,  Smedley,  and  myself 
upon  children  of  school  age  show  that  their  ability  to  repeat  or  write 
a  list  of  letters,  figures,  syllables,  or  familiar  words  immediately 


320  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

after  they  have  been  heard  or  seen  generally  increases  with  age 
by  about  one  third  from  the  age  of  eight  or  nine  to  eighteen.  As 
the  reproduction  is  immediate,  it  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of  mem- 
ory proper  as  of  mental  grasp. 

The  cause  of  this  increase  in  mental  grasp  with  age  is  probably 
the  same  as  that  which  makes  it  possible  for  us  to  hold  in  mind  a 
long  description  of  a  route  to  be  taken  among  familiar  objects, 
while  a  short  description  of  a  route  among  unfamiliar  objects  can- 
not be  kept  in  mind  long  enough,  perhaps,  to  get  started  right. 
The  same  cause  makes  it  easy  for  a  skillful  chess  or  checker  player 
to  see  at  once  many  more  results  of  a  move  than  he  could  when 
he  began,  or  for  an  experienced  musician  to  play  with  both  hands, 
work  the  pedals,  perceive  the  notes,  and  sing  the  words  of  a  song 
all  at  the  same  time.  In  other  words,  ideas  or  a  series  of  ideas, 
and  even  combinations  of  several  series  of  ideas  that  have  become 
definite  and  well  established,  are  easily  held  in  mind,  while  indefi- 
nite and  newly  formed  ideas  can  be  kept  in  consciousness  only  in 
limited  numbers  and  with  effort. 

The  ideas  of  the  child  are  largely  new,  while  those  of  the  adult 
are  oftener  old  or  connected  with  old  ideas ;  hence  the  adult's 
mental  grasp  is  greater  chiefly  because  of  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence. The  effect  of  knowledge  on  mental  grasp  is  well  shown  by 
a  series  of  experiments  in  which  first-grade  children  and  adults 
reproduce  ordinary  letters,  Greek  letters,  and  familiar  sentences. 
The  adults  have  little  advantage  in  the  case  of  Greek  letters,  a  great 
deal  in  ordinary  letters,  and  are  almost  infinitely  better  in  reproduc- 
ing the  letters  making  a  sentence.  Evidently  the  difference  is  due 
to  greater  familiarity  and  increased  mental  grasp.  (6 :  254-255) 

Prolonged  retention.  —  Concerning  the  changes  with  age 
in  prolonged  memory,  or  the  ability  to  retain  mental  content 
for  some  time,  Kirkpatrick  says  : 

As  already  shown,  mental  grasp  or  memory  span,  in  reproducing 
impressions  just  received,  increases  with  age  in  a  marked  degree. 
The  increase  in  power  to  recall  after  an  interval  of  time,  which  is 
more  properly  called  memory,  is  much  less.  Jastrow  found  that 
university  students  remembered  only  i  or  2  per  cent  more  words 
after  an  interval  of  three  days  than  high  school  students  five  years 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  321 

younger.  My  tests  showed  little  difference  in  the  reproduction,  after 
three  days,  of  words  seen  or  heard  and  objects  shown,  by  children 
from  the  third  grade  up  to  college  students,  except  that  the  memory 
of  the  older  persons  was  more  voluntary  and  less  ready  and  spon- 
taneous. Shaw  found  that  a  story  consisting  of  three  hundred  and 
twenty-four  words,  and  nearly  half  as  many  distinct  facts,  was  re- 
produced more  than  twice  as  fully  by  pupils  of  the  ninth  grade  as 
in  the  lowest  grade  tested  [namely,  the  third],  and  as  well  or  better 
than  by  high-school  or  university  students.  He  counted  as  correct 
facts  expressed  in  other  words  than  those  given  in  the  story.  The 
greater  difference  with  age  in  this  test,  compared  with  others,  is 
probably  because  it  involves  associations  of  ideas  instead  of  mere 
retention  of  impressions.  If  we  take  into  account  the  slight  mental 
grasp  of  the  children  and  the  length  of  time  required  for  them  to 
express  what  they  remembered  in  writing,  the  difference  in  memory 
of  impressions  is  almost  nothing,  and  in  memory  involving  associa- 
tions of  ideas  is  not  very  great. 

The  receptivity  and  retentiveness  of  the  child's  brain  is  probably 
as  great  as  that  of  the  adult.  The  difference  in  the  memory  of 
children  and  adults  is  therefore  a  difference  in  kind  rather  than 
in  degree,  and  is  caused  largely  by  experience.  Nothing  that  can 
be  used  as  a  memory  test  is  as  new  for  the  adult  as  it  is  for  the 
child.  The  adult  already  knows  a  part  of  what  he  is  given  to  re- 
member, or,  in  other  words,  certain  brain  centers  have  already  had 
practice  in  reproducing  such  impressions.  In  the  adult  brain  also, 
where  many  centers  are  already  well  practiced,  new  impressions 
readily  run  into  the  old  channels ;  hence  impressions  are  easily 
classified,  and  their  centers  readily  awakened  to  activity  again  be- 
cause of  their  connection  with  centers  frequently  called  into  action. 
Finally,  the  adult  mind  has  more  power  of  voluntary  attention,  both 
in  receiving  impressions  and  in  trying  to  reproduce  them  by  hold- 
ing in  mind  some  idea  connected  with  them.  As  a  consequence 
the  spontaneous  and  unclassified  memories  of  adults  are  not  better 
than  those  of  children,  if  they  are  as  good,  while  their  voluntary 
and  systematic  memories  are  better.  (6:  268-271) 

In  learning  a  foreign  vocabulary  by  either  the  direct  or 
the  translation  method  of  instruction  the  type  of  memorizing 


322  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

involved  is  the  voluntary  and  systematic  kind  referred  to  in 
the  last  sentence  of  the  above  quotation. 

Evidence  upon  memorizing  justifies  postponing  learning 
foreign  vocabulary,  —  If  we  apply  to  the  pedagogical  prob- 
lem concerning  the  best  age  at  which  to  learn  a  foreign 
vocabulary  the  conclusions  from  the  experimental  investiga- 
tions of  ability  to  memorize  at  different  ages,  it  is  clear  that 
the  later  years  of  the  period  from  six  to  eighteen  are  just  as 
favorable  to  such  learning  as  any  ether  years  of  the  period. 
This  is  not  merely  a  statement  of  opinion,  as  was  our  con- 
tention in  connection  with  acquiring  motor  skill,  but  it  is  a 
conclusion  suggested  by  the  results  of  objective,  precisely 
measured,  expert  experimentation. 

Some  reasons  for  prevalence  of  contrary  opinion.  Notice 
mature  failures  and  overlook  successful  mature  beginners.— 
With  this  fact  in  mind,  let  us  consider  briefly  the  reasons 
why  many  teachers  hold  to  the  contrary  opinion  that  the  earlier 
years  are  more  favorable  for  learning  a  foreign  vocabulary. 
In  the  first  place,  the  relative  difficulties  that  older  students 
experience  with  a  foreign  language  are  commonly  exaggerated, 
owing  to  the  following  tendencies  :  to  judge  by  a  few  extreme 
cases  of  poor  mature  students,  to  disregard  extreme  cases  of 
good  mature  students,  and  to  fail  to  get  reliable  averages  for 
students  of  different  ages  who  are  beginning  a  foreign  lan- 
guage. Thus,  if  a  language  teacher  in  college  has  a  mature 
student  of  twenty-five  years  of  age  who  fails,  the  teacher  com- 
monly says  it  is  because  he  began  the  language  when  too  old. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  there  will  be  young  students  fail- 
ing with  the  language  but  attracting  no  attention.  More- 
over, to  balance  failures  of  mature  students  who  begin  a 
foreign  language,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  cite  examples  of 
mature  beginners  who  have  made  brilliant  successes  with 
foreign  languages.  Thus,  the  best  teacher  of  German  and 
Spanish  that  I  have  ever  known  was  an  American  who  began 
the  serious  study  of  these  languages  after  he  was  thirty  years 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING           323 

old.  Similarly,  a  graduate  student  in  the  university,  aged 
thirty-eight,  began  the  study  of  French  and  after  twenty-four 
weeks  with  a  class  of  beginners  (during  which  time  he  carried 
on  some  extra  outside  French  reading)  easily  passed  the  read- 
ing test  in  French  required  of  candidates  for  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy.  Finally,  a  man  of  forty-five  began 
the  study  of  German  in  the  university  and  made  grades  of 
A  and  B  in  his  classes. 

Mature  beginners  succeed  in  proportion  to  native  linguistic 
talent.  —  Shall  we  say  that  these  men  succeeded  so  well  with 
the  languages  because  they  began  them  when  so  mature  ?  Of 
course  not.  The  fact  is  that  all  of  them  have  a  natural  talent 
for  language,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  all  express  them- 
selves easily  and  fluently  in  English.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
of  the  mature  beginners  who  fail  in  studying  a  foreign  lan- 
guage have  little  native  linguistic  ability,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact 
I  hat  they  have  little  facility  in  expressing  themselves  in  English. 

These  examples,  however,  are  beyond  the  age  limits  with 
which  we  are  concerned  in  our  discussion  in  this  chapter, 
namely,  from  six  to  eighteen.  They  are  cited  here  simply 
because  they  are  of  the  same  type  as  the  examples  ordinarily 
used  to  show  that  mature  beginners  of  a  language  are  at  a 
distinct  disadvantage.  In  order  that  they  may  not  confuse 
the  issue,  we  repeat  that  during  the  period  from  six  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  the  experimental  investigations  of  memorizing 
indicate  that  the  later  years  of  the  period  are  as  favorable 
to  the  systematic  learning  of  a  foreign  vocabulary  as  are  the 
earlier  years. 

Social  economy  also  justifies  postponing  study  of  foreign 
language.  —  The  above  psychological  discussion  lends  addi- 
tional force  to  the  conclusion  reached  upon  social  grounds, 
that  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  a  foreign  language  in 
American  schools,  for  children  of  American  parents,  should 
be  delayed  until  there  is  large  and  reasonable  assurance  that 
the  particular  students  who  begin  the  study  will  have  occasion 


324  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

to  use  it  as  a  practical  tool.  If  this  were  done,  a  very  few  stu- 
dents would  begin  the  study  in  high  school,  but  most  students 
who  began  at  all  would  do  so  in  college. 

Delay  beginning  until  some  assurance  that  language  will 
be  used.  —  Ordinarily,  nearly  all  high-school  students  are  re- 
quired or  advised  to  study  a  foreign  language,  in  order,  if  the 
occasion  should  ever  arise,  that  they  may  be  able  to  use  it 
as  a  tool  for  study  or  research.  In  what  per  cent  of  the  cases 
is  the  occasion  to  use  the  language  as  a  practical  tool  likely 
to  arise  ?  If  we  ever  really  determined  exactly  what  per  cent 
of  high-school  students  do  actually  use  a  foreign  language 
as  a  tool  in  later  life,  the  number  would  in  all  probability 
be  so  small  that  we  should  be  justified  in  exactly  reversing 
the  argument  stated  in  the  first  sentence  of  this  paragraph  ; 
that  is,  we  should  say  that,  inasmuch  as  over  90  per  cent  of 
high-school  students  will  not  have  occasion  to  use  a  for- 
eign language  as  a  practical  tool  in  later  life,  we  shall  avoid 
an  enormous  social  waste  (of  community  money,  teachers' 
time  and  energy,  and  students'  time  and  energy)  by  making 
little  or  no  provision  for  the  study  of  a  foreign  language 
by  most  students  in  American  high  schools.  Those  who 
will  use  it  as  a  practical  tool  in  reading  may  begin  to  learn  it 
when  it  becomes  reasonably  certain  which  students  they  are. 
If  they  are  to  be  candidates  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy,  as  many  of  those  are  who  use  the  language  as 
a  tool  for  studying,  they  can  learn  to  read  French  in  one 
year  and  German  in  two  years  during  their  college  course. 
Moreover,  learning  the  language  at  this  period  will  obviate 
the  waste  of  time  ordinarily  entailed  in  relearning  the  lan- 
guage when  it  has  been  studied  early  in  life.  That  this 
necessity  of  relearning  is  a  serious  fact  is  shown  by  the 
large  number  of  failures  in  efficiency  and  reading  exami- 
nations in  French  or  German  by  students  in  college  who 
have  studied  the  languages  from  two  to  ten  years  before 
taking  the  examination. 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  325 

Use  of  foreign  language  as  a  tool  for  study  is  very  infre- 
quent,—  To  make  the  contentions  of  the  preceding  para- 
graph specific,  let  us  consider  1000  students  who  enter 
high  school.  Of  these  probably  500  will  not  continue  to 
graduation.  Practically  none  of  the  nongraduates  will  have 
occasion  to  use  French  or  German  as  a  practical  tool  for 
further  study.  Of  the  500  who  graduate,  250  may  go  to 
college.  Of  these,  100  may  graduate  and  be  eligible  to  be- 
come candidates  for  the  doctor's  degree.  But  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  probably  only  10  out  of  the  original  1000  will  ever 
do  serious  graduate  study  to  the  extent  of  receiving  the 
master's  degree  (that  is,  one  year  after  graduation  from 
college).  Probably  not  5  out  of  the  original  1000  who  en- 
tered high  school  will  become  serious  candidates  for  the 
doctor's  degree.  Of  the  5,  some  will  try  to  choose  topics 
for  dissertations  in  connection  with  which  they  will  not  have 
to  use  French  or  German.  Of  those  who  secure  the  degree 
very  few  will  continue  to  do  productive  research  work  which 
will  require  a  reading  knowledge  of  a  foreign  language. 
Many  of  them  will  get  positions  as  professors  in  small  col- 
leges, normal  schools,  or  high  schools,  and  do  routine  teach- 
ing the  rest  of  their  lives. 

Combined  psychological  and  social  arguments  justify  post- 
poning study  of  foreign  language.  —  Putting  together  the 
psychological  evidence  concerning  the  facility  with  which  a 
reading  knowledge  or  the  vocabulary  of  a  language  is  acquired 
at  different  ages,  and  the  facts  concerning  the  enormous 
social  waste  that  is  entailed  by  requiring  or  advising  students 
to  begin  the  study  of  foreign  languages  early,  we  feel  justi- 
fied in  maintaining  that  in  most  cases  the  study  of  a  foreign 
language  should  be  begun  in  later  adolescence  (from  eighteen 
to  twenty-two  years  of  age),  when  the  few  students  who  will 
use  the  language  begin  to  arrange  their  elections  of  studies 
with  definite  reference  to  a  practical  goal  in  connection  with 
which  they  will  use  them. 


326  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Changes  with  age  in  reasoning  processes.  Maintained  here 
that  elementary  children  use  same  processes  as  adolescents.  — 
When  we  take  up  a  consideration  of  the  reasoning  processes 
of  students  at  different  ages,  we  again  confront  a  condition 
in  which  the  dogmas  of  ordinary  observers  are  controverted 
by  scientific  evidence.  The  ordinary  opinion,  often  found 
expressed  in  pedagogical  books,  is  that  young  children  do 
not  reason  as  older  persons  do,  and  that  some  magic  change 
takes  place  at  the  beginning  of  adolescence  which  results  in 
the  appearance  or  development  of  the  reasoning  powers. 
As  opposed  to  this  opinion,  scientific  psychology,  which  is 
based  upon  carefully  conducted,  precise,  experimental  inves- 
tigations, shows  that  children  solve  problems  and  acquire  and 
use  abstract  and  general  ideas  by  the  same  general  mental 
processes  as  adults  use.  In  other  words,  children  carry  on 
reflective,  analytical,  abstract,  generalized,  reasoned  thinking 
in  the  same  way  as  adults,  although  not  as  extensively  as 
adults  who  are  engaged  in  certain  specialized  professional 
and  scientific  pursuits. 

Reasoning  abilities  of  children  demonstrated  by  Bonser.  — 
The  abilities  of  children  in  the  intermediate  grades  to  solve 
problems  and  do  reflective  thinking  of  various  types  were 
thoroughly  investigated  by  F.  G.  Bonser  and  the  results  re- 
ported in  his  monograph  entitled  "  The  Reasoning  Abilities 
of  Children  in  the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth  School  Grades." 
His  experiments  included,  among  other  tests,  the  working  of 
mathematical  problems  of  the  following  types  : 

1.  A.  i.  If  f  of  a  gallon  of  oil  costs  9  cents,  what  will  7  gal- 
lons cost? 

2.  John  sold  4  sheep  for  $5  each.    He  kept  £  of  the  money 
and  with  the  other  \  he  bought  lambs  at  $2  each.    How  many 
did  he  buy  ? 

3.  A  pint  of  water  weighs  a  pound.  What  does  a  gallon  weigh  ? 
I.  B.   i.  A  man  whose  salary  is  $20  a  week  spends  $14  a  week. 

In  how  many  weeks  can  he  save  $300  ? 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  327 

2.  How  many  pencils  can  you  buy  for  50  cents  at  the  rate  of 
2  for  5  cents  ? 

3.  A  man  bought  land  for  $100.    He  sold  it  for  $120,  gaining 
$5  an  acre.    How  many  acres  were  there  ? 

II.  A.   i.   132  plus  what  number  equals  36  ? 

2.  If  John  had  15  cents  more  than  he  spent  to-day,  he  would 
have  40  cents.    How  much  did  he  spend  to-day  ? 

3.  What  number  minus  7  equals  23  ? 

II.  B.  i.  What  number  subtracted  12  times  from  30  will  leave 
a  remainder  of  6  ? 

2.  If  a  train  travels  half  a  mile  in  a  minute,  what  is  its  rate 
per  hour? 

3.  What  number  minus  16  equals  20  ? 

Concerning  the  kind  of  mental  processes  involved  in  these 
problems  Bonser  says  : 

Tests  I  and  II,  the  problems  in  arithmetic,  test  the  mathe- 
matical judgment,  in  general  that  form  of  deductive  reasoning 
most  closely  resembling  the  syllogistic  movement  of  formal  logic. 
The  steps  here  involved  are  three :  First,  the  analysis  of  the  situ- 
ation, by  which  the  essential  features  of  the  problem  are  conceived 
and  abstracted  ;  second,  the  recall  of  an  appropriate  principle  to  be 
applied  to  the  abstracted  problem  —  a  search  among  various  prin- 
ciples which  may  suggest  themselves  for  the  right  one ;  and  third 
(involved  in  the  second),  the  inference,  the  recognition  of  identity 
between  the  known  principle  and  the  new  situation.  While  this 
process  goes  on  as  implicit,  explicitly  there  are  made  the  concrete 
applications  in  the  resolution  of  the  problems.  Clearly  these  are 
examples  of  deductive  reasoning  of  the  usual  scientific  type,  in- 
volving data,  principles,  and  inferences.  The  only  element  omitted 
is  that  of  verification,  which,  by  the  nature  of  the  tests,  cannot  here 
be  brought  out.  (2  :  14) 

As  would  be  expected  by  anyone  familiar  with  the  chil- 
dren of  the  grades  tested,  the  problems  used  in  the  tests 
were  solved  successfully  by  children  in  all  of  the  grades, 
although  there  was  improvement  through  the  grades.  Some 


328  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

of  the  best  achievements  were  made,  however,  by  some  of  the 
children  in  the  fourth,  or  lowest,  grade  tested.  Thus,  5  per 
cent  of  the  boys  in  grade  4A  reached  or  exceeded  the  ability 
reached  by  the  highest  25  per  cent  of  all  the  boys  in  the  test. 

These  data  show  by  objective  evidence  that  children  do 
the  same  type  of  reflective  thinking  and  problem-solving  as 
adults  do.  For  an  extended  defense  of  this  point  of  view 
see  the  article  by  Professor  John  Dewey  entitled  "  Reason- 
ing in  Early  Childhood,"  in  the  Teachers  College  Record, 
January,  1914  (4:  9-15). 

Arguments  for  contrary  opinion  refuted.  Mistakes  in 
reasoning  not  evidence  of  lack  of  reasoning.  —  In  order  to 
make  the  whole  situation  concerning  reasoning  abilities  at 
different  ages  somewhat  clearer,  we  shall  consider  some  of 
the  points  commonly  made  in  connection  with  the  ordinary 
opinion  that  young  children  do  not  reason.  One  reason  why 
persons  hold  this  opinion  is  because  children  make  mistakes 
in  their  reasoning.  These  mistakes,  however,  are  not  evi- 
dence of  lack  of  reasoning.  Even  the  best  reasoners  make 
mistakes,  and  some  of  the  errors  made  by  large  numbers  of 
adults  appear  as  ludicrous  to  those  who  are  better  informed 
as  do  the  mistakes  of  children.  Thus,  in  the  seventeenth 
century  there  was  common  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  a  sym- 
pathetic powder  or  salve  which  was  supposed  to  cure  a 
wound  through  being  rubbed  on  the  weapon  instead  of  on 
the  wound.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  those  who  used  the  powder 
or  salve  often  found  that  their  wounds  got  well ;  but  that 
their  reasoning  in  attributing  the  cure  to  the  salve  or  powder 
was  fallacious  becomes  evident  on  reading  the  directions 
accompanying  it.  These  were,  "  Rub  the  salve  on  the  weapon 
and  keep  the  wound  clean  and  cool."  The  medical  practices 
of  the  past  were  full  of  such  errors,  yet  some  of  the  physi- 
cians who  believed  in  them  were  well-educated  men  and 
skilled  reasoners.  Hence,  the  fact  that  children  make  mis- 
takes in  reasoning  is  not  proof  that  they  cannot  reason.  It 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING           329 

simply  shows,  as  in  the  case  of  adults,  that  they  have  in- 
sufficient information  or  have  failed  to  discover  the  essential 
element  in  the  problem  which  they  are  considering. 

Reasoning  of  children  confined  to  problems  within  their 
grasp.  —  Another  reason  for  underestimating  the  reasoning 
activities  of  children  is  a  survival  from  the  educational  prac- 
tices that  prevailed  during  the  period  of  religious  dominance 
in  elementary  education,  especially  before  the  nineteenth 
century.  During  this  period  the  material  of  instruction  con- 
sisted largely  of  religious  discussions,  a  long  catechism  being 
considered  the  most  important.  Since  children  could  not 
understand  or  reason  with  the  theological  abstractions  con- 
tained in  the  catechism,  it  was  assumed  that  they  could 
not  reason  at  all.  Rousseau  (in  1762)  made  the  proper 
psychological  correction  to  this  opinion  when  he  asserted 
that,  although  children  could  not  reason  about  the  abstrac- 
tions of  theology,  they  could  reason  effectively  about  matters 
within  the  range  of  their  experience  and  understanding. 

Children  use  symbolic  images  in  reasoning.  —  Some  au- 
thorities, instead  of  abiding  by  the  objective  evidence  of  the 
reasoning  done  by  children  (such  as  Bonser's  study),  endeavor 
to  show  that  children's  reasoning  is  of  a  different  type  from 
that  of  adults,  by  saying  that  children  use  concrete  images 
as  the  mental  stuff  for  their  thinking,  while  adults  in  logical 
reasoning  use  symbols,  words,  etc.  without  attendant  concrete 
images.  For  all  practical  purposes  this  is  simply  a  quibble, 
since  the  problems  solved  and  the  objective  results  produced 
by  children  are  of  exactly  the  same  types  as  those  of  adults, 
and  statements  concerning  the  nature  of  their  mental  proc-. 
esses  must  be  indirect  inferences  or  guesses.  Moreover,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  asserted  difference  between  the  mental 
stuff  used  in  the  reasoning  of  children  and  that  used  by  ordi- 
nary adults  can  be  established  in  the  way  mentioned,  that  is, 
in  terms  of  the  presence  and  absence  of  concrete  imagery. 
In  the  first  place,  children  in  school  begin  very  early  to  use 


330  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

symbols  in  such  a  way  that  the  concrete  imagery  is  relatively 
unimportant.  For  example,  consider  problems  II,  J?,  i  and  3 
in  Bonser's  test  printed  above  on  page  327.  In  solving  these 
problems  the  essential  thinking  by  the  children  may  be  and 
must  be  carried  on,  to  a  very  large  extent,  in  terms  of  mathe- 
matical symbols  and  abstract  terms  —  in  fact,  to  just  as  large 
an  extent  as  would  be  the  case  with  an  ordinary  adult  who 
solved  the  same  problems. 

Adults  may  have  concrete  imagery  in  logical  reasoning. 
—  Moreover,  an  adult  may  be  working  with  a  problem  in  con- 
nection with  which  abstract  symbols  and  generalized  ideas 
would  seem  to  be  the  important  thought-stuff,  and  yet  have 
concrete  images  of  particular  situations  constantly  coming  to 
mind.  For  example,  I  was  recently  asked  by  a  normal-school 
president  to  examine  and  criticize  his  two-year  course  of 
study  for  high-school  graduates.  It  happened  that  I  had  just 
made  a  study  of  normal-school  catalogues  and  had  tabulated 
and  codified  the  requirements  and  practices  in  twenty-five 
representative  institutions.  On  this  basis  I  had  drawn  up  a 
statement  of  what  seemed  to  me  to  be  the  essential  elements 
in  a  two-year  normal-school  course,  and  I  had  this  clearly  in 
mind  as  the  logical  basis  for  criticizing  the  course  submitted 
to  me  for  evaluation.  On  the  other  hand,  I  had  spent  five 
years  as  a  teacher  in  a  normal  school  in  Ohio.  In  fulfilling 
the  normal-school  president's  request  I  found  that  instead  of 
thinking  purely  in  terms  of  the  generalized  normal-school 
investigation  that  I  had  just  made,  I  was  continually  having 
in  mind  concrete  images  of  courses  of  study,  faculty  meet- 
ings, committee  meetings,  etc.  at  the  Ohio  normal  school, 
where  we  had  discussed  the  same  general  problems  as  applied 
to  a  specific  situation.  In  other  words,  the  essential  ideas 
and  meanings  in  my  reasoning  about  normal-school  adminis- 
tration were  the  abstract  tabulations  and  generalized  state- 
ments reached  in  my  general  survey,  but  running  along  with 
these  in  my  thinking  were  the  unnecessary  and  relatively 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  331 

useless  pictures  of  former  colleagues  sitting  around  tables 
and  desks.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  even  adults  who  are 
carrying  on  a  highly  generalized  type  of  reflective  thinking 
or  reasoning  may  have  more  or  less  concrete  imagery  accom- 
panying it.  Hence  we  do  not  find  that  the  logical  reasoning 
of  ordinary  adults  necessarily  differs  from  that  of  children  by 
the  absence  of  concrete  imagery. 

Adolescence  brings  no  new  intellectual  processes.  —  Finally, 
it  is  sometimes  assumed  that  there  is  some  great  change  at 
adolescence  in  the  type  of  intellectual  processes  carried  on. 
It  is  argued  that,  since  there  are  such  profound  physical,  in- 
stinctive, and  emotional  changes  associated  with  the  maturing 
of  the  sex  functions,  there  must  be  similar  innovations  in 
the  intellectual  life.  There  is,  however,  no  scientific  evidence 
to  indicate  that  any  such  change  in  the  general  character  of 
the  intellectual  processes  does  take  place.  As  students  grow 
from  the  primary  grades  to  high-school  graduation  no  new 
types  of  intellectual  processes  appear  and  no  sudden  changes 
take  place  in  the  general  character  of  any  of  the  types  that 
are  present.  Sensory  discrimination,  or  sense  perception,  is 
present  all  the  time  and  increases  gradually  in  efficiency. 
Images  are  present  at  all  ages  from  six  to  eighteen.  In 
the  prolonged  thinking  of  any  individual,  at  any  age,  con- 
cerning almost  any  new  topic,  the  concrete  images  tend  to 
become  subordinated  to  symbolic  images  or  imaged  sym- 
bols (usually  words)  and  feelings  of  meaning  as  the  thinker 
becomes  better  informed  about  the  topic  and  his  ideas  about 
it  become  more  general  and  abstract. 

Adolescence  does  bring  new  social  problems  and  economic 
responsibilities.  —  Similarly,  reasoning  is  going  on  at  all  ages 
of  school  experience.  Adolescence  commonly  brings  with  it 
larger  social  interests  and  larger  economic  responsibilities, 
which  provide  opportunities  for  thinking  about  many  larger 
problems  than  those  which  presented  themselves  during  the 
years  from  six  to  fourteen.  But  these  larger  problems  at 


332  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

adolescence  are  thought  out  by  the  same  types  of  mental 
processes  as  children  have  been  using  in  their  studies  and 
games  and  employments  during  the  period  from  six  to  four- 
teen. Hence,  as  Dewey  says,  in  reflective  thinking 

the  only  way  to  achieve  traits  of  carefulness,  thoroughness,  and 
continuity  (traits  that  are,  as  we  have  seen,  the  elements  of  the 
"  logical ")  is  by  exercising  these  traits  from  the  beginning  and  by 
seeing  to  it  that  conditions  call  for  their  exercise.  (3  :  65) 

Same  general  principles  of  reflective  thinking  apply  at  all 
ages.  —  In  view  of  these  facts  we  may  conclude  that  the 
general  principles  concerning  training  in  reflective  thinking 
which  were  discussed  in  Chapter  IX  apply  at  all  stages  of 
schooling,  from  the  kindergarten  to  college  graduation.  Hence 
adolescent  training  calls  for  no  peculiar  principles  of  instruc- 
tion in  connection  with  reasoning,  but  simply  requires  an 
intelligent  application  of  these  general  principles. 

Same  point  of  view  applied  to  training  in  enjoyment  and 
expression.  —  In  taking  up  the  two  remaining  types  of  learn- 
ing (namely,  acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment,  and  skill  in  ex- 
pression) we  shall  maintain  the  same  general  position  as  we 
have  in  the  cases  of  motor  skill,  association  of  symbols  and 
meanings,  and  reflective  thinking ;  that  is,  the  later  years 
of  the  school  period  (from  fourteen  to  eighteen)  are  charac- 
terized by  the  same  general  methods  of  developing  habits  of 
enjoyment  and  expression  as  are  the  earlier  years  (from  six 
to  fourteen),  although  the  content  of  the  experiences  which 
play  a  part  in  the  enjoyment  or  expression  may  be  different 
and  the  directions  which  the  interests  of  the  students  take 
may  vary. 

Training  in  enjoyment  based  on  persistent  instincts  and 
emotions.  —  At  the  basis  of  many  of  the  forms  of  enjoyment 
are  found  certain  fundamental  instinctive  and  emotional  ten- 
dencies that  are  present  in  all  of  the  years  of  the  school 
period.  The  instinctive  enjoyment  of  rhythm  is  one  of  the 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING  333 

best  examples.  It  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  enjoyment 
of  music,  poetry,  and  dancing  at  all  ages.  Similarly,  the  in- 
terest in  action,  from  which  a  large  part  of  the  contemplative 
enjoyment  in  watching  games  and  dramatic  performances  is 
derived,  is  based  on  ingrained  instinctive  emotional  tendencies 
which  are  probably  as  strong  during  the  period  from  fourteen 
to  eighteen  as  from  six  to  fourteen.  Certainly  thousands  of 
observers  during  the  older  period  will  be  held  spellbound  by 
the  action  in  athletic  contests  and  in  the  theater  in  the  same 
way  as  children  are.  It  would  be  possible  to  go  through  the 
whole  gamut  of  forms  of  enjoyment  discussed  in  Chapter  X 
and  show  in  the  same  way  that  the  fundamental  basis  in  most 
young  persons  is  the  same  at  all  ages,  namely,  certain  deep- 
seated,  persistent,  instinctive  emotional  tendencies.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  find  a  single  instinct  that  is  ever  fundamental 
in  the  enjoyment  of  leisure  and  which  is  also  transitory  in 
character,  that  is,  dies  out  in  the  later  part  of  the  school 
age  although  present  in  the  earlier  part.  For  an  elaborate 
defense  of  this  position  see  Thorndike's  criticism  of  James's 
famous  statement  to  the  contrary  (8  Vol.  I  :  260-269). 
On  the  other  hand,  we  have  appearing  during  the  school 
period  the  finest  example  of  a  delayed  instinct  to  be  found, 
namely,  the  sex  instinct.  This  instinct  must  be  added  during 
the  adolescent  period  as  a  fundamental  factor  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  leisure  time,  and  must  be  given  serious  consideration 
in  connection  with  parties,  dancing,  reading,  and  possibly  other 
lines  of  enjoyment.  The  same  general  principles  of  training 
for  enjoyment,  however,  apply  to  the  period  which  includes 
the  sex  instinct  as  apply  in  the  earlier  periods  ;  namely,  those 
described  in  Chapter  X. 

Expression.  —  Practically  the  same  points  as  were  made 
above  in  the  discussion  of  training  for  enjoyment  at  different 
ages  apply  to  training  in  expression.  Hence  they  need  not 
be  repeated.  In  general,  effective  training  in  expression  is 
secured  at  all  stages  in  the  school  process  under  the  same 


334  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

general  conditions  as  were  outlined  in  Chapter  XI ;  namely, 
(i)  a  real  audience  situation,  (2)  the  student  with  interesting 
new  content  which  he  desires  to  communicate,  (3)  the  care- 
ful organization  of  the  same  as  a  product  of  and  aid  to  clear 
thinking,  and  (4)  the  endeavor  to  get  the  point  of  view  of  the 
audience,  in  order  to  make  the  presentation  clear,  interesting, 
and  impressive.  As  in  the  case  of  training  for  enjoyment, 
the  development  of  the  sex  instinct  adds,  during  the  adoles- 
cent period,  to  the  list  of  instinctive  tendencies  of  students 
which  the  teacher  must  consider.  It  brings  with  it  certain  sec- 
ondary characteristics,  such  as  shyness  or  bashfulness  and  the 
opposing  desire  to  show  off,  which  are  very  important  factors 
in  the  training  in  expression  in  mixed  classes. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  influence  of  age  on  learning.— 
In  general  we  can  describe  human  beings  from  six  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  as  being  very  similar  as  far  as  their  fundamental 
methods  of  learning  are  concerned.  In  the  case  of  acquiring 
motor  skill,  the  older  students  learn  with  approximately  the 
same  facility  and  by  almost  the  same  methods  as  the  younger 
ones  when  attacking  forms  of  skill  that  are  equally  novel  to 
all  groups.  At  all  ages  the  principles  concerning  the  part 
played  by  a  correct  start,  imitation,  verbal  directions  within 
the  understanding  of  the  learner,  correct  practice  with  zeal 
and  concentration  of  attention,  etc.  apply  as  described  in 
Chapter  VI.  In  intellectual  learning  we  find  all  the  basic 
processes  active  at  all  ages  (from  six  to  eighteen);  namely, 
the  processes  of  sensory  discrimination  and  sense  percep- 
tion, concrete  imagination,  symbolic  representative  thinking 
in  terms  of  words  and  other  symbols,  analysis,  abstraction, 
the  reflective  solution  of  problems,  reasoning.  Hence,  at 
all  ages  students  should  be  given  training  in  careful,  pur- 
posive, controlled  thinking  as  well  as  in  the  building  up  of 
systems  of  associations.  Similarly,  in  acquiring  habits  of 
enjoyment  and  skill  in  expression  the  same  general  prin- 
ciples apply  at  all  ages.  During  adolescence  the  sex  instinct 


INFLUENCE  OF  AGE  ON  LEARNING          335 

enters  as  an  additional  conditioning  factor  to  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  the  application  of  the  general  principles. 

Throughout  this  chapter  and  the  preceding  ones,  on  expres- 
sion and  on  self-activity  and  apperception,  we  have  had  frequent 
occasion  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  adapting  instruction 
to  the  interests  of  students,  and  have  noted  that,  while  these 
interests  are  based  upon  fundamental  persistent  instincts  at 
all  ages,  their  specific  direction  or  content  varies  greatly  with 
the  experiences  of  the  students.  The  importance  of  these 
instinctive  interests  as  furnishing  the  chief  basis  for  getting 
students  to  apply  themselves  so  as  to  learn  effectively  and 
economically  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.    The  Educative  Process.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1905.)  Chap.  xii.   Maintains  the  opposite  view  from  that  presented 
here  concerning  changes  with  age. 

2.  BONSER,   F.   G.     The  Reasoning  Abilities  of  Children  of  the 
Fourth,  Fifth,  and  Sixth  School  Grades.   (Teachers  College,   1910.) 
A  reliable  experimental  investigation. 

3.  DEWEY,  JOHN.    How  We  Think.    (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1910.) 
Pp.  65-66. 

4.  DEWEY,  JOHN.    Reasoning  in  Early  Childhood.    Teachers  College 
Record,  January,  1914,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  9-1 5.    Defends  the  thesis  that  "  the 
power  of  reasoning  in  children  does  not  differ  fundamentally  from  that 
of  adults." 

5.  HALL,  G.  STANLEY.   Adolescence.   (D.  Appleton  and  Company, 
1904.)   Vol.  II,  pp.  488-492.    Summary  of  experiments  on  memorizing. 
See  also  his  Youth,  pp.  268-273. 

6.  KIRKPATRICK,   E.    A.    Fundamentals   of  Child  Study.    (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1903.)    Chap,  xiv,  entitled  Development  of  Intel- 
lect, especially  pp.  254-255,  268-271,  274-282. 

7.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.   Notes  on  Child  Study.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1903.)    Chaps,  xi  and  xiii.    Most  critical  discussion  of  abilities  of 
children  in  memorizing  and  reasoning. 

8.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  being  Volume  I 
of  his  Educational  Psychology.  (Teachers  College,  1913.)  Pp.  260-269. 

Exercises.  —  See  pp.  E 1 75-E 1 76  of  the  Exercises. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

INTERESTS,  THE  BASIS  OF  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  Difficult  and  worthy  achieve- 
ments in  life  are  based  on  intense  interests. 

2.  Similarly,  effective  endeavor  and  economy  in  learning  is  best 
secured  in  school  by  utilizing  students'  active  interests. 

3.  Closely  related  to  interest  is  attention,  which  may  be  sub- 
divided as  follows: 

a.  Spontaneous  attention,  which  is  either 

(1)  Instinctive  or 

(2)  Habitual. 

b.  Forced  attention. 

4.  Spontaneous  attention  is  much  more  effective  than  forced 
attention  as  the  basis  of  economical  learning. 

5.  The  following  instincts  are  discussed  as  the  basis  of  spon- 
taneous instinctive  attention  in  school : 

a.  Fear  of  physical  pain,  fear  of  sarcasm  and  ridicule, 
and  individual  emulation,  which  were  emphasized  in  school 
practice  for  many  years. 

b.  Mental  activity,  curiosity,  physical  activity,  manipula- 
tion, communication,  and  cooperation,  which  are  coming  to 
be  used  more  extensively. 

6.  Habitual  interests  or  habitual  tendencies  to  give  attention  are 
formed  by  students  as  they  progress  through  school,  and  teachers 
should  build  upon  these. 

7.  To  utilize  the  natural  and  acquired  interests  of  students 
effectively,  teachers  in  high  schools  should  familiarize  themselves 
with  the  interests  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls. 

Intensive  application  necessary  for  economical  learning.  — 
The  problem  of  this  chapter  is  the  one  of  getting  pupils  to 
apply  themselves  so  that  they  will  cany  on  effectively  and  eco- 
nomically the  processes  of  learning  described  in  the  preceding 

336 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING    337 

chapters.  The  relation  of  this  problem  to  the  previous  dis- 
cussions may  be  outlined  briefly  as  follows  :  As  the  first  point 
to  be  considered  we  took  up  (in  Chapter  II)  a  discussion  of 
the  broadening  tendencies  found  in  high-school  instruction 
at  the  present  time,  and  defined  the  ultimate  purposes  of 
such  instruction  as  social  efficiency  (economic,  domestic,  and 
civic),  good  will,  and  harmless  enjoyment.  We  then  showed 
(in  Chapter  III)  that  the  modern  school  which  is  organized 
to  attain  these  aims  must  apply  principles  of  business  man- 
agement in  order  to  avoid  the  enormous  waste  that  would 
otherwise  occur  in  such  a  complicated  social  institution. 
The  subject  matter  to  be  used  was  next  considered,  as  its 
selection  and  arrangement  affects  the  individual  teacher,  and 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  adaptation  to  varying  social 
needs  and  to  the  interests  and  capacities  of  the  students. 
In  the  next  nine  chapters  (V  to  XIII)  we  considered  at 
length  the  processes  by  which  students  learn,  since  the 
direction  of  the  learning  process  is  one  of  the  teacher's  chief 
duties.  We  discussed  the  methods  by  which  each  type  of 
learning  is  carried  on  most  effectively  and  economically,  as 
well  as  the  influence  of  certain  general  factors,  including  the 
increase  in  age  of  the  students.  Now,  having  gained  an  idea 
of  what  the  school  should  aim  to  accomplish,  its  general  prin- 
ciples of  economical  management,  the  subject  matter  it  should 
use,  and  the  types  of  learning  it  must  direct,  we  confront  the 
problem  of  securing  intensive  application  by  the  students  in 
order  that  the  learning  processes  may  be  carried  on  effectively 
and  economically. 

Intense  effort  best  secured  by  utilizing  student's  active 
interests.  —  The  best  basis  for  economy  and  effectiveness 
in  learning  is  concentration  of  attention  by  the  learner  upon 
the  process  or  material  to  be  mastered.  Such  concentration 
of  attention  is  best  secured  through  the  learner's  active  inter- 
ests. Hence  the  teacher  should  be  skilled  in  so  arranging 
educative  situations  that  the  students  will  lay  hold  vigorously 


338  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

upon  the  experiences  provided  and  will  reach  out  after  more. 
This  is  what  is  meant  by  having  instruction  appeal  to  the 
student's  interests.  It  conceives  of  interests  as  dynamic 
active  tendencies  in  human  beings,  which  the  school  can 
take  advantage  of  and  so  direct  that  the  energies  of  the 
students  will  be  spent  in  mastering  materials  and  processes 
that  are  educative. 

A  business  proposition,  not  a  matter  of  sentiment.  —  This 
way  of  regarding  the  utilization  of  student's  present  interests 
as  an  aid  in  instruction  is  purely  utilitarian  and  cold-blooded 
in  character.  There  is  nothing  sentimental  about  it,  any  more 
than  it  would  be  considered  a  matter  of  sentiment  for  a  trav- 
eling salesman  to  try  to  sell  an  improved  adding  machine  to 
a  business  man  by  appealing  to  the  man's  interest  in  securing 
speed,  economy,  and  accuracy  in  his  bookkeeping.  In  the 
selling  of  most  kinds  of  goods  the  salesman  can  assume,  on 
the  part  of  the  prospective  buyer,  the  existence  of  certain 
active  interests  which  are  an  essential  part  of  the  latter's  busi- 
ness activity.  The  salesman  builds  upon  these  in  the  same 
way  that  the  teacher  ought  to  build  upon  the  active  interests 
of  students  which  are  the  essential  elements  in  their  lives. 
When  the  school  is  adapted  to  social  needs,  it  is  endeavoring 
to  accomplish  certain  fundamental  human  purposes  which  are 
paralleled  by  the  students'  interests.  This  is  especially  true 
during  the  adolescent  period.  It  is  simply  a  matter  of  com- 
mon business  sense  to  approach  the  purposes  to  be  attained 
through  their  corresponding  interests,  in  the  same  way  that 
the  skilled  salesman  approaches  his  prospective  customer 
through  the  latter's  interests. 

Opposed  by  advocates  of  drudgery  in  school.  —  The  view 
of  instruction  which  has  just  been  presented  regards  the  school 
as  preparing  in  very  definite  ways  for  the  manifold  activities 
of  life  in  which  most  normal  human  beings  are  vitally  inter- 
ested. With  such  a  general  point  of  view  it  is  a  simple  matter 
to  so  organize  instruction  as  to  utilize  the  natural  energies  of 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     339 

students  in  getting  the  activities  of  the  school  carried  on. 
The  opposite  view  of  instruction,  which  considers  its  mate- 
rials and  processes  to  be  essentially  and  necessarily  distasteful 
to  students,  prevailed  in  secondary  instruction  for  a  long  time 
and  still  has  some  ardent  advocates,  especially  in  schools  which 
maintain  the  old  classical  curriculum  with  little  modification. 
This  view  may  be  designated  as  the  drudgery  view  of  in- 
struction. According  to  this  view  Latin  is  a  splendid  instru- 
ment of  instruction,  because  in  teaching  it  we  can  so  easily 
assign  to  students  definite  distasteful  tasks  which  will  develop 
their  will  power  and  thus  prepare  them  to  attack  the  dis- 
tasteful duties  of  life. 

Achievements  in  life  based  on  intense  interests,  not  on 
drudgery.  —  The  drudgery  view  of  learning  is  certainly  falla- 
cious if  we  regard  the  school  (as  we  have  been  doing  in  this 
book)  as  a  place  that  prepares  in  quite  specific  ways  for  the 
activities  of  life,  because,  to  do  this  economically,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  work  with  and  not  against  the  active  interests  of  stu- 
dents. Moreover,  it  is  probably  a  more  valid  view  of  life  and 
achievement  in  general  to  say  that  persons  who  accomplish 
great  things  in  life  are  those  who  are  actuated  or  driven  by 
intense,  abiding  interests.  This  is  true  of  most  of  the  great 
leaders  in  science,  literature,  politics,  morals,  and  religion. 
As  compared  with  these,  the  number  of  persons  is  relatively 
small  who  have  accomplished  things  by  saying,  "  Here  are 
great  unpleasant  duties.  I  must  perform  them  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  I  hate  to  do  it.  The  fundamental  activities 
of  my  life  are  certainly  uninteresting ;  they  make  no  appeal 
to  me  ;  but  I  must  find  some  way  to  drive  myself  to  my 
work."  Moreover,  the  same  contrast  would  probably  be 
true  of  ordinary  people  who  try  to  lead  worthy  lives ;  most 
of  them  do  worthy  deeds  because  they  have  strong,  abiding, 
specific  interests  in  the  activities  represented,  not  because 
they  are  driven  by  the  sense  of  duty  to  do  distasteful  tasks. 
Hence  the  preparation  for  a  life  of  useful  service  should  be 


340  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

made  by  directing  the  active  present  interests  of  students  in 
such  a  way  that  the  worthy  interests  of  life  grow  out  of  them. 

Difficult  undertakings  often  the  most  interesting.  —  A 
corollary  of  the  theory  which  regards  intense  interests  as  the 
basis  of  achievement  is  the  statement  that  intense  interest 
may  be  manifested  in  accomplishing  very  difficult  things. 
The  most  extreme  examples  of  this  fact  are  those  in  which 
the  difficult  activity  is  interesting  largely  because  of  its  diffi- 
culty. The  best  illustrations  from  school  life  are  found  in  the 
interest  with  which  some  students  attack  difficult  exercises 
in  geometry.  An  example  from  ordinary  life  is  mountain 
climbing.  This  is  illustrated  not  only  by  the  activities  of  pro- 
fessional climbers,  who  go  to  the  ends  of  the  earth  to  scale 
the  highest  peaks,  but  also  by  some  of  the  climbing  under- 
taken in  the  Alps  by  amateurs  simply  in  order  to  climb 
difficult  mountains. 

Interest  in  the  final  end  lends  interest  to  intermediate  steps. 
—  Very  commonly  an  intense  interest  is  maintained  in  achiev- 
ing some  end  regardless  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  the 
path,  and  the  interest  in  the  final  end  develops  an  interest  in 
mastering  the  intermediate  difficulties.  Among  the  best  ex- 
amples are  the  careers  of  great  singers  and  actors  and  actresses. 
These  have  been  well  illustrated  in  the  many  recent  accounts 
of  the  long  and  varied  training  which  great  singers  must  go 
through,  including  not  only  vocal  training  proper  but  also 
linguistic  training  and  severe  physical  regimen,  to  develop  a 
powerful  physique.  In  such  cases  the  intense  interest  in  the 
final  achievement  impels  the  singer  to  practice  the  interme- 
diate processes,  which  sometimes,  as  a  result,  become  very 
interesting  in  themselves.  To  be  sure,  specific  efforts  of  the 
will  are  often  necessary  in  starting  the  learner  upon  a  period 
of  practice,  but  such  efforts  are  commonly  not  actuated  by 
an  abstract  sense  of  duty,  but  by  the  interest  in  the  final  goal, 
to  which  the  relation  of  the  intermediate  steps  is  clearly  per- 
ceived. In  view  of  this  discussion  we  may  assume  that  an 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     341 

emphasis  upon  interests  as  the  basis  of  effective  and  econom- 
ical learning  in  the  school  is  perfectly  consistent  with  pro- 
longed, intense  application  by  the  students  in  mastering 
difficult  assignments. 

Part  played  by  interest  in  learning  shown  in  preceding 
chapters.  —  The  point  of  view  which  regards  present  interests 
as  the  basis  for  effort  and  achievement  in  instruction  has  been 
assumed  throughout  the  preceding  chapters.  Thus,  in  Chapter 
II  (p.  22)  the  development  of  abiding,  many-sided  interests 
was  named  as  one  of  the  important  proximate  aims  of  instruc- 
tion. In  Chapter  IV  (p.  80)  the  adaptation  of  subject  matter 
to  the  present  interests  of  students  was  set  forth  as  one  of  the 
chief  factors  in  carrying  out  the  psychological  instead  of  the 
logical  point  of  view  in  organizing  subject  matter.  In  Chap- 
ter X  (p.  259)  and  Chapter  XI  (p.  278)  this  same  point  was 
given  detailed  application  to  training  in  habits  of  enjoyment 
and  expression.  In  the  chapter  on  practice  and  drill  (p.  149) 
the  mest  convincing  fact  which  we  possess  concerning  the 
value  of  concentration  of  attention  based  on  interest  was 
stated  in  connection  with  Book's  experiments  on  acquiring 
skill  in  typewriting.  This  fact  was  that  improvement  in 
speed,  as  shown  by  actual  measurements,  was  greatest  when 
interest  and  concentration  of  attention  were  greatest.  Periods 
of  dead  mechanical  practice  were  characterized  by  little  im- 
provement in  speed.  Moreover,  it  was  clear  in  Book's  study 
that  the  concentration  of  attention  which  was  effective  was 
not  secured  by  a  dead  heave  of  the  will,  but  was  based  upon 
spontaneous  interest. 

Interest  and  attention  ;  spontaneous  and  forced  attention  ; 
a  working  classification.  —  The  last  statement  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  furnishes  the  point  of  departure  for  an 
analysis  of  the  methods  of  securing  interest  and  concen- 
trated attention,  for  attention  may  be  characterized  as  either 
(i)  spontaneous  or  (2)  forced.  Spontaneous  attention  seems 
to  come  of  itself,  either  because  the  individual  is  impelled 


342  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

from  within  by  active  interests  or  because  of  the  attractive- 
ness  of  some  object  which  appeals  to  some  tendency  in  the 
individual.  Forced  attention,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  be 
especially  constructed  or  manufactured  by  the  individual,  either 
in  response  to  his  own  idea  that  he  must  attend  or  in  response 
to  a  demand  from  some  other  person.  It  is  always  difficult 
to  get  satisfactory  descriptive  terms  to  designate  kinds  of  at- 
tention, but  for  the  purposes  of  our  pedagogical  discussions 
the  use  of  the  terms  spontaneous  and  forced  as  defined  above 
will  be  sufficiently  clear. 

Spontaneous  attention  more  effective  than  forced  atten- 
tion.—  As  pointed  out  in  our  discussion  of  Book's  experi- 
ments on  learning  to  use  the  typewriter  (see  p.  1 5  2),  sponta- 
neous attention  is  more  effective  than  forced  attention,  because 
the  former  is  usually  undivided  and  hence  is  more  constant 
and  concentrated.  On  the  other  hand,  forced  attention  (at 
least  in  the  beginning  of  the  attentive  act)  is  usually  divided, 
for  not  only  is  the  learner  endeavoring  to  give  attention  to 
the  matter  in  hand,  but  he  also  has  in  mind  the  fact  that 
he  must  give  attention,  and  he  has  to  keep  thinking  that  he 
must  check  himself  from  failing  to  attend  to  the  matter  in 
hand.  Moreover,  he  is  at  the  same  time  often  impelled  or 
attracted  by  some  other  object  of  attention  which  appeals 
to  his  interests.  In  such  a  situation,  attention  to  the  matter  to 
which  he  is  endeavoring  to  give  forced  attention  is  likely  to 
be  quite  fluctuating ;  hence,  not  concentrated  ;  hence,  not 
very  effective.  As  an  example  of  such  a  situation  let  the  stu- 
dent call  to  mind  his  own  efforts  to  study  for  an  examina- 
tion when  a  conversation  in  which  he  is  interested  is  being 
carried  on  across  the  table  from  him  and  he  realizes  that  he 
has  only  twenty  minutes  left  in  which  to  get  ready  for  the 
examination.  Or  call  to  mind  efforts  to  study  after  returning 
from  a  dance,  with  the  mind  full  of  alluring  melodies  and 
memories,  or  after  laying  down  an  unfinished  and  exciting 
book.  It  takes  no  fine  psychological  measurements  to  show 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     343 

that  the  progress  made  during  an  hour  of  such  divided  and 
forced  attention  is  often  not  as  great  as  that  made  during  fif- 
teen minutes  of  concentrated,  undivided,  spontaneous  atten- 
tion to  the  lesson  in  question.  In  school  work  it  is  obvious 
that  the  substitution  of  such  spontaneous,  undivided  attention 
for  the  forced  and  divided  attention  which  is  often  found  there 
would  mean  much  more  effective  and  economical  learning. 

Two  kinds  of  spontaneous  attention,  the  instinctive  and 
the  habitual.  —  Spontaneous  attention,  which  it  is  so  desirable 
to  secure,  may  be  based  upon  interests  or  active  tendencies 
which  are  either  instinctive  or  habitual  (that  is,  acquired) ; 
hence  we  may  speak  of  instinctive  spontaneous  attention  and 
habitual  spontaneous  attention.  If  now  we  tabulate  our  de- 
scriptive terms  for  the  various  kinds  of  attention,  they  appear 
as  follows : 

1 .  Spontaneous  attention 

a.  Instinctive 

b.  Habitual 

2.  Forced  attention 

Examples  of  instinctive  spontaneous  attention  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  attention  to  moving  objects,  to  loud  noises,  to  rhythmic 
noises,  to  living  animals  by  children,  to  members  of  the  oppo- 
site sex  during  adolescence,  to  contests  of  various  sorts,  to 
stories  of  adventure,  romance,  etc.  In  general,  there  would 
be  examples  of  instinctive  spontaneous  attention  correspond- 
ing to  every  one  of  the  long  list  of  human  instincts  to  which 
reference  will  be  made  later  on.  Examples  of  habitual  spon- 
taneous attention  are  the  following :  attention  to  the  block 
signals  by  the  locomotive  engineer,  to  the  barometer  by  the 
navigator,  to  the  stock  reports  by  the  broker,  to  the  rocks  of 
a  region  by  the  geologist,  etc.  Many  cases  of  spontaneous 
attention  have  a  definite,  instinctive  basis,  which  has  become 
specialized  by  habit  in  certain  directions.  Thus,  the  instinctive 
spontaneous  attention  which  the  lover  of  sports  gives  to  con- 
tests becomes  specialized  by  habit  in  the  tendency  to  give 


344  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

rapt  attention  to  the  sporting  page  of  the  newspaper.  The 
instinctive  spontaneous  attention  which  some  speculators  and 
financiers  give  to  business  gambling  for  gain  becomes  special- 
ized by  habit  in  the  form  of  attention  to  the  tape  of  the  ticker 
upon  which  appear  the  stock  reports.  We  shall  take  up  each 
type  of  spontaneous  attention  for  detailed  consideration  in 
relation  to  instruction,  considering  instinctive  spontaneous 
attention  first. 

Instinctive  spontaneous  attention.  Instincts  the  basis  of 
human  behavior.  —  The  first  point  to  consider  in  connec- 
tion with  instinctive  spontaneous  attention  is  the  large  part 
played  by  instincts  in  determining  human  tendencies  and 
conduct.  It  is  sometimes  assumed  that  animals  are  guided 
by  instincts  and  man  is  guided  entirely  by  reason.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  man  has  more  instincts  than  most  animals,  and 
the  instincts  of  any  particular  individual  are  largely  the  basis 
of  his  character  and  his  active  interests.  To  secure  an  appre- 
ciation of  this  fact  the  student  should  read  the  chapter  on 
instincts  in  William  James's  "  Principles  of  Psychology " 
(Vol.  II,  pp.  383-441)  and  the  first  part  of  MacCunn's 
"Making  of  Character"  (1913)  (pp.  1-68).  Both  of  these 
books  have  a  very  attractive  style,  and  the  discussions  referred 
to  throw  an  interesting  light  on  human  nature  generally,  apart 
from  all  pedagogical  considerations.  For  a  more  accessible 
and  equally  interesting  account  of  instincts,  read  J.  R.  Angell's 
"Psychology"  (1908)  (pp.  339~362). 

Three  questions  in  evaluating  each  instinct.  —  In  taking 
up  the  pedagogical  consideration  of  instincts  as  the  basis  of 
instinctive  spontaneous  attention,  we  may  note  three  ques- 
tions that  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  determining  the  desir- 
ability of  utilizing  any  given  instinct  in  school  as  a  means  of 
securing  interest ;  namely, 

1 .  What  part  does  the  instinct  play  in  social  life  ? 

2.  Is  it  effective  when  utilized  as  a  basis  of  attention  and 
interest  in  instruction  ? 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING    345 

3.  Are  the  present  and  ultimate  educational  results  of 
utilizing  it  satisfactory  ? 

Illustrated  by  application  to  instinct  of  emulation.  —  To 
illustrate  the  application  of  these  questions,  let  us  consider  the 
use  of  the  instinct  of  emulation  in  instruction  from  the  stand- 
point of  each  question. 

1 .  Emulation  an  important  cause  of  social  striving.  — 
Emulation,  or  rivalry,  is  one  of  the  most  impelling  motives  in 
social  life.    In  fact,  Veblen,  in  his  "  Theory  of  the  Leisure 
Class,"  maintains  that  "  pecuniary  emulation  "  (that  is,  the 
desire  to  possess  more  wealth  or  position  or  power  than  some- 
one else)  is  at  the  basis  of  most  social  striving  and  many 
phases  of  social  organization.   He  gives  examples  which  vary 
from  the  savage,  who  can  show  the  obvious  trophies  of  the 
chase  as  evidence  of  his  power  and  wealth,  to  the  American 
millionaire  whose  unused  mansion  on  Fifth  Avenue  or  River- 
side Drive  in  New  York,  and  whose  jewel-bedecked  wife  in 
the  golden  horseshoe  at  the  opera,  serve  the  same  purpose  by 
being  tangible  evidence  that  he  has  so  much  money  that  he 
can  afford  to  spend  it  in  perfectly  useless  or  unnecessary  ways. 
Such  persons,  and  in  a  small  way  many  others,  are  not 
striving  for  necessities  or  even  for  luxuries  ;  they  are  simply 
striving  to  get  more.   At  first  they  strive  to  get  more  than 
some  persons  and  as  much  as  certain  others  in  order  to  be 
considered  in  the  class  with  the  latter.    Having  attained  this 
point  they  are  not  satisfied,  but  continue  to  strive  to  secure 
more  than  their  present  equals  in  wealth  or  power  or  posi- 
tion, in  order  to  have  as  much  as  some  other  individual  or 
group  higher  up  in  the  scale  of  quantity.    Thus  the  striving 
is  always  going  on,  bringing  with  it  many  material  improve- 
ments in  life  and  at  the  same  time  producing  much  unhappi- 
ness,  but  leaving  no  doubt  that  emulation  is  one  of  the  most 
influential  causes  in  social  endeavor. 

2.  Emulation   has   been   effectively  used  in   schools. — 
When  we  regard  emulation  from  the  standpoint  of  our  second 


346  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

question,  namely,  its  effectiveness  when  used  in  instruction, 
it  becomes  evident  that  it  can  be  made  just  as  influential 
in  school  as  it  is  in  social  life  at  large.  If  prizes,  rewards, 
honors,  and  position  are  held  up  for  competition,  the  striving 
of  students  to  attain  them  commonly  becomes  intense  and 
vigorous.  If  the  conditions  of  the  competition  are  so  arranged 
as  to  give  a  chance  to  students  of  all  degrees  of  ability,  the 
stimulus  affects  large  numbers  of  the  students.  The  large 
possibilities  of  using  emulation  as  a  motive  were  most  thor- 
oughly worked  out  by  the  Jesuits,  whose  secondary  Latin 
schools  were  the  most  efficient  in  Europe  for  over  two  hun- 
dred years  before  1773.  There  were  many  factors  contribut- 
ing to  cause  this  efficiency,  one  of  them  being  the  organized 
appeal  to  emulation.  Their  scheme  is  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing quotation  from  Quick's  "  Educational  Reformers." 

One  of  the  leading  peculiarities  of  the  Jesuits'  system  was  the 
pains  they  took  to  foster  emulation,  "  the  whetstone  of  talent,  the 
spur  of  industry."  For  this  purpose  all  the  boys  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  school  were  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  being  rivals  (aemulf) 
to  one  another.  Every  boy  was  to  be  constantly  on  the  watch  to 
catch  his  rival  tripping,  and  was  immediately  to  correct  him.  Be- 
sides this  individual  rivalry,  every  class  was  divided  into  two  hostile 
camps,  called  Rome  and  Carthage,  which  had  frequent  pitched 
battles  of  questions  on  set  subjects.  These  were  the  "  concerta- 
tions,"  in  which  the  boys  sometimes  had  to  put  questions  to  the 
opposite  camp,  sometimes  to  expose  erroneous  answers  when  the 
questions  were  asked  by  the  master.  (8  :  42) 

Further  evidence  concerning  the  effectiveness  of  an  appeal 
to  emulation  can  be  cited  by  anyone  who  is  familiar  with  the 
results  in  high  schools  where  students  are  stimulated  to  study 
for  gold  and  silver  medals,  for  first  place  in  the  class,  etc. 
To  be  sure,  the  possibility  of  securing  these  honors  stimulates 
only  a  few,  but  the  effect  upon  these  is  evidence  that  a  com- 
petitive system  that  would  stimulate  all  would  be  effective  in 
increasing  the  general  interest  in  and  attention  to  studies. 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING    347 

3.  Are  the  total  effects  of  using  individual  emulation 
tinsatisfactory  ?  —  When  we  come  to  consider  the  total 
influence  of  appeals  to  emulation,  we  find  ourselves  in  a 
dilemma.  Many  idealistic  educators  disapprove  entirely  of 
the  use  of  emulation  and  rivalry  in  schools,  because,  they 
say,  this  practice  merely  increases  in  each  pupil  the  tend- 
ency to  scramble  for  more  wealth  or  position  or  power.  Not 
only  in  social  life  but  also  in  school,  they  say,  it  tends  to 
develop  unhappiness,  hard  feelings,  and  deceit. 

Human  play  is  naturally  strongly  competitive.  —  On  the 
other  hand,  if  we  watch  children  and  adults  at  play,  we  find 
emulation  such  a  large  factor  that  we  might  conclude  that  it 
is  one  of  the  greatest  contributors  to  human  happiness. 

Rivalry  in  social  life  may  be  directed  to  worthy  ends.  — 
Further  light  is  thrown  on  our  dilemma  by  examples  from 
social  life  where  competition,  or  rivalry,  is  used  in  the 
pursuit  of  some  worthy  end,  such  as  raising  funds  for  the 
Red  Cross.  In  this  case,  the  harder  persons  or  teams  compete, 
the  harder  they  are  working  for  a  desirable  social  outcome. 

Emulation  being  directed  in  school  to  secttre  beneficial 
results.  —  Possibly  the  answer  to  our  dilemma  would  be  that 
emulation  is  not  in  itself  a  pernicious  tendency,  but,  instead, 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  human  instincts  in  bringing 
about  self-improvement  and  social  improvement.  The  problem 
of  directing  it  in  social  life  so  that  people  shall  compete 
in  socially  helpful  ways  is  being  solved  by  democratic  gov- 
ernments which  are  restricting  the  opportunities  for  indi- 
viduals to  acquire  enormous  fortunes  and  power  and  are 
interesting  efficient  competitive  persons  in  public  services. 
In  schools  the  problem  of  utilizing  rivalry  is  being  solved  by 
setting  up  standard  scores  or  achievements  for  individuals 
to  attain  and  by  instituting  group  competitions.1 

1  The  point  of  view  expressed  here  (in  1919)  reverses  that  of  earlier 
printings  of  the  text.  The  change  is  due  to  wider  observations  (i)  of 
human  play,  and  (2)  of  competitive  American  activities  during  the  war. 


348  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Thus  we  have  considered  the  instinct  of  emulation  from 
the  three  points  of  view  outlined  above ;  namely, 

1.  The  part  which  it  plays  in  social  life. 

2.  Its  effectiveness  as  used  in  school. 

3.  The  value  of  the  educational  results  of  using  it.    Stu- 
dents should  keep  these  three  points  in  mind  and  apply  them 
in  evaluating  all  human  instincts  that  may  be  used  as  the 
basis  of  attention  and  interest  in  instruction. 

Important  instincts  used  as  basis  of  attention  and  interest. 
—  We  shall  now  take  up  a  few  of  the  instincts  which  have 
been  used  in  practical  ways  in  school  to  secure  attention,  in 
the  order  of  their  emphasis  historically. 

Fear  of  physical  pain  generally  used  until  1800. —  It  is  hard 
to  realize  that  in  Western  Europe  for  hundreds  of  years  the 
principal  means  of  getting  students  to  study  their  lessons  was 
fear  of  physical  punishment ;  but  this  was  the  case.  There 
is  plenty  of  evidence  in  the  pictures  of  old-time  schools,  in 
the  appeals  to  abolish  the  practice  which  were  made  by  such 
famous  writers  as  Erasmus  (1466-1536),  Comenius  (1592- 
1670),  Ascham  (1515-1568),  and  Mulcaster  (1530-1611), 
and  in  the  records  of  the  number  of  whippings  given  by 
schoolmasters.  The  picture  on  page  349,  in  which  a  large 
bunch  of  switches  is  held  ready  in  the  master's  hand,  is 
typical.  The  switches  were  held  in  such  a  convenient  posi- 
tion, not  because  the  boys  were  likely  to  be  unruly  or  insub- 
ordinate, but  in  order  that  the  teacher  might  give  a  blow  for 
each  mistake  as  soon  as  the  pupil  made  it  while  reciting. 

Apart  from  the  fact  that  for  humanitarian  reasons  such 
punishment  would  not  be  tolerated  at  the  present  time,  it 
would  not  be  used  because  it  is  obviously  ineffective.  Instead 
of  securing  spontaneous  attention,  at  the  best  it  secures  forced, 
divided  attention  under  conditions  that  are  very  unfavorable 
to  mental  progress.  For  these  reasons  the  use  of  the  instinc- 
tive fear  of  physical  pain  as  a  stimulus  to  attention  was  gen- 
erally discarded  after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     349 


Fear  of  sarcasm  and  ridicule.  —  Somewhat  akin  to  the 
appeal  based  on  the  fear  of  physical  pain  is  that  based  on 
the  instinctive  fear  of  sarcasm  and  ridicule.  This  form  of 
stimulus  is  still  used  by  many  teachers,  who  regard  it  as  an 
effective  instrument.  Such  teachers  practice  the  use  of  sar- 
casm and  ridicule  as  an  art,  and  develop  a  vocabulary  of 
stinging  terms  and  expressions  calculated  to  make  the  laziest 
student  apply  himself  in 
order  to  avoid  a  repetition 
of  the  ridicule.  It  is  true 
that  such  methods  are  often 
effective  in  securing  atten- 
tion and  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  student,  but  attention 
secured  in  this  way  is  likely 
to  be  forced  and  divided,  and 
hence  relatively  ineffective 
as  compared  with  sponta- 
neous attention.  If  some 
means  of  arousing  the  latter 
can  be  devised,  it  would  be 
better  to  omit  sarcasm  and 
ridicule.  Moreover,  the  un- 
happiness  which  these  cause 
most  students  to  suffer  and 
the  unfriendly  relations  which 
they  tend  to  establish  between 
teacher  and  students  furnish  additional  reasons  for  avoiding 
their  use  under  ordinary  circumstances.  Certain  mild  forms 
of  good-humored  ridicule,  in  which  the  lazy  or  careless  stu- 
dent becomes  the  object,  for  the  moment,  of  mild,  friendly 
bantering  by  the  teacher,  would  be  the  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule  of  eliminating  ridicule  as  a  stimulus  to  attention. 

Emulation  used  by  the  Jesuits  as  described  above.  —  The 
transition  from  the  use  of  the  fear  of  physical  pain  to  the 


A  FRENCH  SCHOOL  ABOUT  1628 

Note  the  convenient  bunch  of  switches, 

ready  to  give  a  blow  for  each  mistake. 

After  Cubberly 


350  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

use  of  emulation  represents  a  definite  historical  advance 
and  was  so  regarded  by  the  two  large  systems  that  used 
emulation  extensively ;  namely,  that  of  the  Jesuits  (i  540),  dis- 
cussed above,  and  the  Lancasterian  monitorial  system,  which 
was  adopted  extensively  in  the  large  cities  in  the  United 
States  from  1805  to  1830.  This  system  used  an  elaborate 
scheme  of  medals,  tickets,  and  prizes,  of  which  there  are  still 
some  survivals  in  our  schools.  In  view  of  the  long  evaluation 
of  the  use  of  emulation  given  above  (pp.  345-348),  nothing 
further  need  be  said  here  concerning  it. 

Other  instinctive  appeals  utilized  recently.  —  We  now 
come  to  a  long  list  of  instincts  which  began  to  be  considered 
as  the  basis  of  attention  during  the  educational  reforms  that 
developed  in  the  later  eighteenth  and  in  the  nineteenth  century 
under  the  stimulus  of  Rousseau's  Emile,  which  was  published 
in  1762.  The  list  includes  mental  activity,  curiosity,  the  col- 
lecting instinct,  the  instinct  of  physical  activity,  manipulation, 
communication,  and  cooperation.  Some  of  these  are  more 
easily  and  profitably  used  in  the  elementary  school  than  in 
high  school. 

Mental  activity.  Normal  human  beings  cannot  keep  from 
thinking.  —  By  the  instinct  of  mental  activity  is  meant  the 
natural  tendency  of  human  beings  to  be  actively  and  spontane- 
ously thinking  whenever  they  are  awake.  Such  spontaneous 
thinking  varies  from  the  revery  of  the  daydreamer  to  the 
scintillating  ideas  of  the  wit  or  the  intense,  suggestive,  and 
critical  reasoning  of  the  scholar.  In  all  of  these  cases  the 
thinking  may  go  on  with  no  special  practical  purpose  in 
view.  The  thinkers  think  because  they  can't  help  it ;  they 
are  driven  by  instinct.  You  may  imagine  the  daydreamer 
and  the  wit  and  the  scholar  all  reclining  lazily  on  the  ocean 
beach  or  in  the  comfortable  chairs  of  a  vacation  resort  in 
summer,  with  nothing  to  do  except  loaf  —  and  the  dreamer 
dreams,  the  wit  scintillates,  and  the  scholar  goes  on  reflect- 
ing just  the  same. 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     351 

Opportunity  for  active  thinking  should  be  provided.  —  This 
fact,  that  much  intense  active  thinking  is  done  as  the  result 
of  the  strong  instinctive  tendency  which  many  persons  pos- 
sess, is  sometimes  overlooked  by  writers  who  insist  that  stu- 
dents must  always  feel  some  practical  need  or  motive  for 
their  studies.  Studies  should  appeal  to  practical  interests  in 
general,  but  the  instinct  of  mental  activity,  as  well  as  many 
of  the  other  instincts,  will  often  keep  many  students  actively 
at  work  physically  and  mentally  if  the  school  will  simply 
open  up  outlets  for  this  instinctive  activity. 

My  own  experience  as  a  youth  is  typical.  In  the  grammar 
grades  of  the  ordinary  elementary  school  which  I  attended, 
no  special  outlets  for  instinctive  mental  activity  were  opened 
up.  Hence,  like  many  boys,  I  read  many  books  of  adventure. 
Our  family  had  three  public-library  cards.  Making  a  trip  down 
town  on  Saturday,  I  could  get  three  books  of  fiction,  such  as 
"  Ragged  Dick,"  "-  Frank  on  the  Gunboat,"  etc.  These  were 
read  through  by  Sunday  evening.  Then  recourse  was  had  to 
five-cent  novels.  These  could  be  bought  second-hand,  two 
for  a  nickel.  By  trading  with  other  boys,  I  could  piece  out 
the  week  with  reading  matter  until  the  next  trip  to  the  library. 
Instead  of  completing  the  eighth  grade  in  the  public  elemen- 
tary school,  I  transferred  to  a  private  manual-training  high 
school  which  maintained  an  eighth  grade.  Here  the  methods 
of  instruction  were  entirely  different.  Every  lesson  opened 
up  some  outlet  for  further  thought  or  reading  or  collecting. 
Instead  of  securing  books  of  fiction  from  the  library,  books 
on  history,  physiography,  botany,  etc.  were  taken  out.  These 
were  read  and  studied  after  school  and  in  the  evening,  not  as 
required  work  but  simply  as  outlets  for  mental  activity.  More- 
over, the  change  was  not  due  to  a  disappearance  of  the  inter- 
est in  stories  of  adventure,  for  I  have  always  continued  to  read 
"  Sherlock  Holmes  "  and  similar  stories  with  intense  interest ; 
but  the  mental  energy  which  went  into  this  line  of  activity 
was  easily  diverted  to  another  when  opportunity  was  offered. 


352  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Most  students  have  favorite  lines  of  mental  activity.  — 
Some  students  exhibit  little  preference  in  the  choice  of  the 
direction  which  their  thinking  will  take ;  they  think  just  as 
spontaneously  along  historical  lines  as  along  mathematical 
or  mechanical  lines.  Most  students,  however,  exhibit  definite 
preferences,  and  these  must  be  considered  by  the  instructor. 
In  probably  half  of  the  students  to  be  found  in  high  school 
the  instinct  of  mental 'activity  is  sufficiently  strong  to  result 
spontaneously  in  serious  study  along  one  or  two  lines,  pro- 
vided the  way  to  these  lines  is  opened  up.  The  preferred 
lines  might  be  historical  and  literary,  or  mathematical  and 
scientific,  or  scientific  and  mechanical,  etc. 

Curiosity ;  either  alert  contemplation  or  mental  striving. — 
The  instinct  of  curiosity  is  a  special  phase  of  the  instinct  of 
mental  activity.  It  is  the  phase  represented  by  the  tendency 
to  be  interested  in  the  novel  aspects  or  the  unmastered  as- 
pects of  the  situation.  Sometimes  it  involves  merely  alert 
contemplation,  but  often  it  is  characterized  by  intense  mental 
striving.  In  either  case  it  is  a  most  useful  instinct  for  securing 
instinctive  spontaneous  attention. 

Easily  aroused. —  Examples  of  the  use  in  high  school  of 
curiosity  in  the  form  of  alert  contemplation  are  found  in  all 
subjects  in  the  use  of  novel  examples  within  the  general  range 
of  the  students'  experience.  Any  new  concrete  or  specific 
instance  or  incident,  if  presented  with  skill,  is  almost  certain 
to  challenge  curiosity  in  the  form  of  alert  contemplation. 
Any  number  of  examples  can  easily  be  given  by  students, 
especially  from  the  subject  matter  of  science.  Curiosity  is 
seldom  aroused  in  high-school  students,  however,  by  general 
and  abstract  statements  unless  these  evidently  present  a  new 
aspect  of  familiar  experiences  or  familiar  general  ideas.  An 
example  of  such  a  statement  would  be  that  water  often  runs 
uphill.  Another  would  be  that  all  men  are  not  created  equal 
even  though  it  is  so  stated  in  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. Another  would  be  that,  although  it  is  a  monarchy,  the 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     353 

English  government  is  probably  more  democratic  than  that 
of  the  United  States.  Another  example,  for  northern  readers, 
would  be  that  the  South  would  probably  have  won  the  Civil 
War  if  it  had  possessed  anything  like  the  material  resources 
of  the  North. 

Contemplative  curiosity  may  be  developed  into  active. — 
Alert  contemplative  curiosity  aroused  by  some  of  these  state- 
ments may  be  changed  into  the  form  of  mental  striving  for 
further  knowledge  of  the  situation.  For  example,  I  do  not 
know  whether  the  last  example  given  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph (namely,  the  one  about  the  North  and  the  South)  is 
true  or  not,  and  I  should  be  curious  to  pursue  the  matter 
farther  by  consulting  authorities,  if  the  facilities  were  available. 
Active  striving  "to  see  how  the  thing  will  come  out"  is  espe- 
cially useful  in  subjects  involving  a  problem  aspect.  Some  of 
the  examples  given  above  in  the  chapter  on  reflective  think- 
ing (pp.  172-178)  might  arouse  such  striving.  Even  ab- 
stract problems  in  geometry  and  physics  appeal  to  the  active 
curiosity  of  some  students.  Laboratory  problems  involving 
experimentation  to  determine  results  appeal  to  others  ;  voca- 
tional problems  to  others.  The  skilled  teacher  will  not  only 
use  new  concrete  incidents  and  instances  and  striking  new 
general  interpretations  of  familiar  facts  in  order  to  arouse 
curiosity,  but  will  also  endeavor  to  get  the  students  so  curious 
that  they  will  not  be  satisfied  until  they  have  found  the  answers 
to  questions  which  have  come  up  in  the  discussion.  Some 
teachers  are  especially  skilled  in  having  each  lesson  conclude 
with  the  class  vitally  interested  in  solving  some  problem  which 
they  work  on  during  the  study  period  or  at  home.  Thus  we 
find  that  curiosity,  which  can  be  easily  aroused  if  the  instruction 
includes  issues  of  real  social  significance,  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  instincts  for  securing  instinctive  spontaneous  attention. 

Collecting  instinct.  Utilized  in  sciences ;  possibilities  in 
other  subjects. — The  possibilities  of  utilizing  the  collecting  in- 
stinct have  been  most  thoroughly  demonstrated  in  the  teaching 


354  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

of  natural  science.  Thousands  of  students  of  botany,  geology, 
and  zoology  have  taken  great  interest  in  making  herbariums 
and  collecting  rocks  and  insects.  Very  commonly  such  col- 
lections have  not  represented  any  very  useful  intellectual  ac- 
tivity, but  they  are  clear  evidence  of  the  power  of  the  instinct 
in  question.  The  collecting  of  books  is  another  striking  ex- 
ample. Many  teachers  become  periodically  or  permanently 
obsessed  with  the  idea  of  collecting  old  or  rare  or  typical  books 
along  certain  lines,  often  without  any  serious  expectation  of 
using  them  for  purposes  of.  study.  They  haunt  old  bookstores, 
study  auction  catalogues,  and  gradually  accumulate  a  lot  of 
unused  books  (so  much  junk)  with  which  they  clutter  up  their 
houses.  Such  being  the  strength  of  the  human  tendency  to 
collect,  it  is  obviously  the  teacher's  duty  to  utilize  the  tend- 
ency as  a  means  of  getting  students  to  concentrate  their 
attention  along  useful  lines.  In  the  natural  sciences  the 
pedagogical  problem  is  not  so  much  to  find  things  to  collect 
as  it  is  to  stimulate  reflective,  systematic  thinking  in  connec- 
tion with  the  collections.  In  the  literary  and  historical  subjects 
the  collecting  must  usually  take  some  form  that  involves  the  use 
of  books.  With  some  students,  bibliographical  work  in  getting 
a  series  of  references  on  a  topic  will  appeal  to  the  collecting 
instinct.  The  way  the  bibliographical  possibilities  open  up  after 
getting  three  or  four  references  which  lead  on  to  others  is 
quite  fascinating  to  a  few  people.  Contemporary  magazines, 
railroad  folders,  announcements  of  summer  and  winter  resorts 
and  of  tours,  are  sources  for  collections  of  great  utility  and 
interest  in  connection  with  studies  in  geography,  civics,  con- 
temporary drama,  contemporary  poetry,  science,  mechanics 
and  other  subjects. 

Manipulation.  Assists  in  studies  through  correlation. — 
The  instinct  of  physical  activity  is  not  utilized  very  much  in 
the  study  of  most  high-school  subjects  except  in  the  special- 
ized form  of  the  instinct  of  manipulation.  This  instinct  is 
the  natural  tendency  to  be  doing  something  with  something, 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     355 

to  change  the  form  or  arrangement  of  materials.  It  is  very 
important  in  the  learning  and  mental  progress  of  young  chil- 
dren, since  their  instinctive  tendency  to  manipulate  materials 
not  only  develops  motor  control  and  knowledge  of  physical 
properties  but  also  involves  the  solution  of  many  constructive 
problems.  In  high  schools,  the  shop  and  laboratory  subjects 
are  the  only  ones  which  offer  natural  opportunities  for  man- 
ipulation. For  this  reason  they  make  a  powerful  appeal  to  a 
great  many  students.  This  appeal  is  seen  very  clearly  in 
manual-training  or  technical  high  schools,  where  not  only 
are  opportunities  for  manipulation  offered  in  shop  and  labo- 
ratory, but  the  other  studies  are  often  so  conducted  that  the 
initial  interest  aroused  by  manipulation  is  carried  over  into 
the  more  intellectual  aspects  of  the  curriculum.  Thus,  the 
problems  in  mathematics  may  be  based  on  projects  from 
the  shop  or  laboratory ;  compositions  may  be  written  about 
the  same ;  the  history  courses  may  emphasize  the  history 
of  inventions,  of  manufacturing,  of  labor,  etc.  This  is  the 
phase  of  the  instinct  of  manipulation  that  most  interests  us 
here;  namely,  the  way  in  which  it  can  be  utilized  to  secure 
instinctive,  spontaneous  attention  and  interest  in  the  various 
phases  of  school  work. 

Teacher  holds  attention  by  his  activities,  —  Somewhat  re- 
lated to  the  instinct  of  manipulation,  as  well  as  to  the  instinct 
of  curiosity,  is  the  natural  interest  in  watching  persons  or 
animals  do  things.  So  strong  is  this  tendency  that  busy  men 
of  affairs,  who  affirm  that  they  have  not  a  moment  for  an 
interview,  will  stop  and-  idly  watch  for  five  minutes  while 
steel  beams  are  being  hoisted  in  the  construction  of  a  sky- 
scraper or  while  a  driver  whose  horse  has  fallen  down  gets 
the  latter  extricated  from  its  harness  and  onto  its  feet.  In  the 
school  the  teacher  can  often  secure  spontaneous  attention  in 
his  direction  simply  by  doing  something.  His  gestures  often 
serve  this  purpose,  as  do  also  diagraming  or  sketching  or 
outlining  on  the  blackboard.  I  have  seen  students  give  rapt 


356  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

attention  to  an  instructor  who  accompanied  his  lecture  by 
making  on  the  board  marks  which  contained  no  diagrammatic 
suggestion  ;  yet  they  got  the  superficial  attention  of  the  stu- 
dents, even  though  they  may  not  have  secured  their  reflective 
attention.  The  latter  may  generally  be  secured,  however,  if 
the  teacher  realizes  the  necessity  of  making  his  diagrams 
mean  something  to  the  students  as  well  as  to  himself. 

Communication.  The  new  basis  of  recitations.  --  The  in- 
stinct of  communication  is  another  strong  natural  tendency 
that  can  be  utilized  to  secure  spontaneous  interest  and  atten- 
tion. Nearly  all  persons  have  this  instinct  to  some  degree, 
although  some  tend  to  be  noncommittal  in  general.  In  many 
persons  the  instinctive  tendency  to  talk  is  so  strong  that  they 
do  it  whenever  opportunity  offers.  Certainly  the  instinct  is 
strong  enough  on  the  average  to  make  it  a  very  useful  factor 
in  instruction.  All  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  use  it  is  to 
carry  out  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  chapter  on  training 
in  expression  (p.  278). 

Cooperation.  Limited  possibilities  for  skilled  teachers. — 
The  instinct  to  cooperate,  or  to  work  together  for  common 
ends,  is  one  that  has  seldom  been  utilized  in  instruction,  but 
which  offers  some  very  worthy  possibilities  which  skilled 
teachers  may  use.  In  social  life  we  find  the  instinct  mani- 
fested in  all  kinds  of  social  organizations  in  which  individuals 
get  together  for  some  common  purpc°es.  Such  organizations 
are  formed  by  students  themselves  and  include  clubs  and 
teams  of  all  sorts.  In  athletic  activities  it  is  easy  to  arouse 
the  interests  of  large  numbers  of  students  by  organizing  group 
competitions  which  appeal  to  the  two  instincts  of  emulation 
and  cooperation.  In  order  to  stimulate  all  students  in  this 
way  it  is  necessary  to  make  it  possible  for  all  to  be  on  teams 
that  have  a  chance  to  win.  This  may  be  done  in  many  cases 
by  organizing  competing  teams  of  approximately  equal  weights 
or  equal  abilities.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  bowling,  each 
team  may  consist  of  a  skilled  player,  a  medium  player,  and  a 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     357 

novice.  In  the  case  of  such  activities  it  is  evident  that  coop- 
eration, combined  with  group  emulation,  secures  great  interest. 

Cooperation  may  be  used  in  the  pursuit  of  studies  by 
group  assignments  in  connection  with  projects  which  permit 
of  division  of  labor.  The  example  of  cooperative  endeavor 
growing  out  of  a  project  in  English  composition,  described 
above  (on  p.  276),  is  typical.  The  educational  periodicals  con- 
tain many  reports  of  such  cooperative  projects  in  English 
courses.  While  cooperation  comes  in  as  a  factor  in  such 
cases,  the  stimulus  to  interest  is  probably  not  so  much  the 
desire  to  do  something  for  the  group  as  it  is  to  be  known  as 
one  who  had  a  hand  in  the  affair  or  to  appear  prominently 
before  the  class  or  student  body  as  a  contributor.  Much  of 
the  endeavor  which  is  attributed  to  the  altruistic  cooperation 
should  really  be  attributed  to  emulation  for  position.  Some 
of  it  should  also  be  attributed  to  group  emulation ;  that  is, 
the  individual  is  interested  in  having  his  group  win,  primarily 
because  it  is  his  group.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some  students 
who  do  not  care  particularly  for  position  or  for  group  rivalry, 
but  who  will  work  zealously  and  unselfishly  for  a  common 
project.  The  opportunity  to  work  with  others  for  a  group  is 
what  interests  them.  While  the  number  of  such  persons  is 
relatively  small,  the  spirit  of  their  endeavor  is  very  desirable 
and  very  important  to  society.  The  teacher  should  arrange 
to  secure  their  spontaneous  interest  by  giving  the  cooperative 
opportunities  which  will  appeal  to  them.  The  best  way  to  do 
this  will  be  to  organize  "  contribution  recitations,"  which  have 
been  discussed  above  in  connection  with  training  in  expression 
(p.  288)  and  will  be  considered  again  from  another  point  of 
view  later. 

Summary  of  discussion  of  use  of  specific  instincts  to  secure 
attention.  —  In  our  discussion  of  the  use  of  various  instincts 
as  a  means  of  securing  spontaneous  interest  and  attention  we 
noted  that  the  appeals  to  the  fear  of  physical  pain  and  the  fear 
of  sarcasm  and  of  ridicule,  which  were  used  so  extensively 


358  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

for  centuries,  have  been  largely  discontinued  —  the  former 
almost  entirely.  Appeals  to  individual  emulation,  which  come 
next  in  the  order  of  historical  development,  are  still  in 
frequent  use  in  many  places.  In  addition  to  these  we  find 
quite  general  and  effective  use  being  made  of  the  instinct 
of  mental  activity  and  curiosity  and  the  instinct  of  physical 
activity  and  manipulation.  The  instinct  of  communication 
offers  large  possibilities,  which  are  beginning  to  be  realized, 
and  the  instinct  of  cooperation  offers  some  limited  but  valu- 
able possibilities,  which  may  be  realized  by  a  relatively  few 
skilled,  idealistic  teachers. 

Habitual  attention.  General  attitudes  of  attention.  —  In 
addition  to  certain  fundamental  instincts  upon  which  teachers 
may  depend  for  securing  attention,  there  gradually  develops 
a  body  of  habits  of  attention  upon  which  the  teacher  may 
count  as  children  reach  the  higher  grades  and  high  school. 
These  habits  may  be  in  the  form  of  general  attitudes  and 
general  interests  or  they  may  take  the  form  of  rather  specific 
habitual  interests  or  tendencies  to  attend.  Among  the  more 
general  habits  are  such  common  ones  as  giving  attention  to 
the  teacher,  to  the  responses  of  other  pupils,  to  books  when 
opened,  etc.  That  these  are  matters  of  habit  rather  than  of 
instinct  comes  out  most  clearly  when  we  contrast  schools  or 
classes  in  which  they  are  emphasized  and  developed  with 
schools  and  classes  in  which  this  is  not  done.  Nothing  fur- 
nishes such  a  strong  superficial  contrast  between  teachers  as 
the  habits  of  attention  of  their  students  at  the  beginning  of 
recitation  periods.  In  some  rooms  pupils,  from  the  moment 
of  entering  and  taking  their  seats,  "  settle  down  to  business," 
which  means  that  they  put  into  operation  certain  habitual 
attitudes  of  attention.  In  a  mathematics  class,  for  example, 
they  get  out  paper  and  pencil,  open  their  books,  set  down  a 
problem,  and  begin  to  study  it.  In  some  classes,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  students  wait  for  the  teacher  to  "  start  something  "  ; 
their  habits  of  giving  attention  in  this  class  all  depend  upon 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     359 

signals  from  the  teacher,  instead  of  being  responses  to  the 
general  situation,  "  being  in  the  classroom."  Habits  of  at- 
tention are  further  illustrated  by  the  tendency,  which  some 
readers  have  purposely  built  up  for  themselves,  of  refraining 
from  looking  up  when  they  are  reading  in  a  library  and  some- 
one comes  into  the  room.  Some  readers  instinctively  look 
up  at  every  interruption ;  others  have  schooled  themselves 
not  to  do  this.  The  same  habit  is  built  up  with  children  in 
classrooms,  and  in  some  model  schools  where  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  visitors  both  children  and  teachers  get  so  that  the 
entering  of  strangers  causes  no  interruption  in  their  atten- 
tion to  the  lesson. 

Habitual  interests  in  subjects.  —  In  connection  with  the 
various  studies  we  form  thousands  of  special  habits  of  atten- 
tion and  habitual  interests.  These  are  best  illustrated  by  the 
attention  of  advanced  specialists,  who  notice  particularly  the 
matters  related  to  their  own  lines  of  specialization.  Thus,  in 
glancing  over  a  row  of  books  in  a  library,  a  historian  will  note 
especially  books  on  history,  a  psychologist  those  on  psychol- 
ogy, etc.  Students  form  similar  habits  as  they  progress  through 
school.  Thus,  in  high  school  the  teacher  of  English  composi- 
tion, for  example,  may  build  upon  certain  habits,  which  pupils 
have  formed  in  the  grades,  of  giving  attention  to  capitals, 
periods,  and  headings,  and  can  assume  a  certain  amount  of 
habitual  interest  in  neat  papers,  even  margins,  and  clearly  ex- 
pressed thought,  if  the  children  have  been  well  taught.  Simi- 
larly, the  teacher  of  third-year  science  in  high  school  can 
count  upon  students  having  habits  of  observing  certain  types 
of  physical  and  biological  phenomena  and  having  habitual 
interests  in  certain  changes  in  color,  weight,  temperature,  and 
growth,  whose  significance  they  have  learned  in  their  previous 
science  courses.  The  necessity  of  building  upon  these  acquired 
interests  and  relating  instruction  to  them  was  emphasized  in 
the  chapter  on  apperception.  If  the  teacher  can  connect  the 
new  experiences  with  habitual  interests  that  the  students 


360  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

have  formed  either  in  school  or  out  of  school,  they  may 
"lay  hold  of  the  new  experiences  and  reach  out  after  more." 

Teachers  must  study  interests  of  high-school  students.  — 
The  adequate  utilization  of  both  the  instinctive  and  the  habit- 
ual interests  of  students  as  a  means  of  securing  concentration 
of  attention  and  economical  learning  necessitates  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  interests  of  high-school  boys  and  girls  on 
the  part  of  the  high-school  teachers.  In  many  cases  the 
teacher  needs  to  have  his  eyes  opened  and  his  standpoint 
broadened  by  getting  an  insight  into  the  lives  of  students 
who  are  of  a  different  type  from  himself.  For  example,  if 
he  is  extremely  religious,  he  ought  to  try  to  realize  the  point 
of  view  of  the  students  in  whose  life  religion  does  not  play 
much  part,  and  vice  versa.  If  he  is  sociable  and  convivial,  he 
ought  to  try  to  get  the  point  of  view  of  the  student  who  is 
bashful  and  lonesome.  If  the  teacher  has  never  been  any- 
thing except  a  "  grind,"  he  ought  to  try  to  appreciate  the 
boys  whose  interests  run  primarily  to  athletics  and  student 
politics.  For  in  all  these  cases  education  will  progress  most 
economically  if  the  energies  of  the  students'  instinctive  and 
habitual  interests  can  be  utilized  instead  of  opposed.  I  have 
heard  it  said  that  one  of  the  best  means  of  attaining  the  broad 
point  of  view  advocated  here  is  to  read  George  Meredith's 
"  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel." 

Further  practical  examples.  —  In  order  to  appreciate  more 
completely  the  practical  bearings  of  some  of  the  points  made 
in  this  chapter,  students  should  read  the  references  to  Char- 
ters' "Methods  of  Teaching"  and  Thorndike's  "Principles 
of  Teaching"  given  in  the  bibliography  on  page  361.  In  the 
former,  note  especially  the  practical  examples,  and  in  the 
latter,  work  the  exercises  that  apply  to  high-school  instruction. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  interests.  — This  concludes  our 
discussion  of  the  use  of  present  interests  as  a  means  of  se- 
curing economy  in  learning.  We  have  seen  that  superior 
results  are  secured  by  methods  of  instruction  which  utilize 


INTERESTS  AND  ECONOMY  IN  LEARNING     361 

students'  interests.  Of  the  many  powerful  instincts  that  might 
be  utilized  as  the  basis  of  spontaneous  interest  in  and  atten- 
tion to  instruction,  the  largest  and  best  possibilities  are  found 
in  the  instincts  of  mental  activity  and  curiosity,  manipulation 
and  communication.  The  skilled  teacher  will  also  build  upon 
the  habitual  interests  which  students  have  acquired  in  and 
out  of  school.  To  familiarize  himself  with  the  instinctive  and 
habitual  interests  of  his  students,  he  will  make  a  study  of 
adolescent  boys  and  girls  of  all  types. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  AXGELL,  J.  R.    Psychology.   (Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1908.) 
Pp.  339-362.   A  brief,  attractive  discussion  of  the  psychology  of  instinc- 
tive behavior  and  of  attention. 

2.  CHARTERS,  W.  W.   Methods  of  Teaching.   (Row,  Peterson  and 
Company,    1912.)    Pp.    146-184,    246-254.     Extensive   discussion  of 
motives,  with  many  practical  illustrations  and  suggestions. 

3.  JAMES,  WILLIAM.    Principles  of  Psychology.   (Henry  Holt  and 
Company,  1890.)   Vol.  II,  pp.  383-441.   Most  important  chapter  written 
on  human  instincts.    Very  attractive  style. 

4.  KIRKPATRICK,  E.  A.    The  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study.   (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1903.)  Thorough  discussion  of  maturing  of  human 
instincts,  with  practical  suggestions. 

5.  MAcCuNN,  J.    The  Making  of  Character.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1913.)   An  attractive  discussion  of  moral  training  based  on  the 
psychology  of  instincts.    See  especially  pp.  1-68. 

6.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    Educational  Psychology.  Vol.  I,  The  Origi- 
nal Nature  of  Man.   (Teachers  College,  1913.)  The  most  thorough  and 
critical  treatment  of  human  instincts.  Read  chap,  xvii,  entitled  The  Value 
and  Use  of  Original  Tendencies. 

7.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    Principles  of  Teaching.   (A.  G.  Seiler,  1906.) 
Pp.  21-39,  5I-67,  105-109.    The  best  pedagogical  discussion  of  inter- 
ests and  attention,  with  their  instinctive  basis.    The  practical  exercises 
should  be  discussed  in  class. 

Referred  to  incidentally  in  the  chapter.    8.  QUICK,  R.  H.    Educa- 
tional Reformers.   (D.  Appleton  and  Company,  1890.) 

Exercises.  —  For  problems  for  discussion,  see  pp.  Ei77-Ei87  of 
Exercises  for  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools" 


CHAPTER  XV 

ADAPTING  CLASS  INSTRUCTION  TO  DIFFERENCES 
IN  CAPACITY 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  The  method  of  class  instruc- 
tion and  recitation  which  is  commonly  used  involves  an  enormous 
waste  of  time  for  both  the  fast  and  the  slow  members  of  a  class,  the 
former  often  having  nothing  to  do,  while  the  latter  are  dragged 
along  so  rapidly  that  they  get  little  or  nothing  out  of  the  subject. 

2.  Statistical  measurements  show  that  the  brightest  pupil  in  a 
class  of  ordinary  size  can  do,  in  the  same  amount  of  time,  from 
two  to  five  times  as  much  as  the  slowest  pupil. 

3.  Since  the  year  1900  considerable  interest  has  developed  in 
the  devising  of  methods  of  varying  class  instruction  so  as  to  adapt 
it  to  the  differences  in  the  capacities  of  the  members  of  the  class. 
The  following  are  typical  experiments : 

a.  The  abolishing  of  all  class  recitations  and  the  substituting 
of  individual  instruction,  each  pupil  advancing  at  his  own  rate. 
This  is  known  as  the  Pueblo  plan. 

b.  The  division  of  classes  into  slow,  medium,  and  fast  sections,  each 
advancing  at  its  own  rate,  partially  under  the  direction  of  monitors. 

c.  Requiring  only   students  who  need   the  recitation    to  give 
attention  to  it,  and  providing  special  supplementary  assignments 
for  the  fast  pupils. 

d.  The  organization  of   required  periods  of   supervised  study 
during  which  individual  attention  is  given  to  individual  students  by 
the  teacher.  This  is  known  as  the  Batavia  plan  and  is  discussed  at 
length  in  the  next  chapter. 

Class  instruction  needs  supplementing  to  suit  individuals. 
—  One  of  the  most-needed  improvements  in  class  instruction 
which  is  advocated  at  the  present  time  is  the  varying  of  the 
pace  at  which  members  of  the  class  are  expected  to  advance, 

362 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY 


363 


so  as  to  eliminate  the  enormous  waste  that  commonly  results 
from  the  brightest  students  being  idle  a  large  part  of  the  time 
and  the  poorest  students  being  dragged  along  so  rapidly  that 
they  fail  to  profit  by  the  instruction.  People  in  cities  are  so 
familiar  with  the  system  of  class  instruction  with  little  or  no 
variation  for  individual  needs  that  they  fail  to  appreciate  the 
fact  that  for  many  years  nearly  all  instruction  was  given  to 
individuals,  and  that  the  present  class  methods  can  be  greatly 


A  FRENCH   SCHOOL   BEFORE  1789 
Note  the  method  of  individual  instruction.  After  Cubberly 

improved  by  introducing  some  modifications  that  would  vary 
the  subject  matter  and  the  pace  to  suit  the  varying  needs  of 
different  students.  We  shall  take  up  briefly  the  historical 
development  of  the  present  method  of  class  instruction  and 
the  movement  for  its  modification,  and  shall  describe  some 
of  the  practical  innovations  that  have  been  tried. 

Historically,  individual  instruction  prevailed  for  centuries. 
-  Up  to  the  nineteenth  century  the  common  method  of  in- 
struction in  schools  was  individual  instruction.  As  a  rule,  each 


364  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

pupil  advanced  to  the  teacher's  desk  when  his  turn  came,  re- 
cited upon  the  work  which  he  had  prepared,  received  a  new 
assignment  in  the  form  of  directions  or  questions,  and  returned 
to  his  seat,  presumably  to  continue  his  studying.  When  there 
were  only  a  few  students  (as  often  happens  even  at  the  present 
time  in  some  rural  schools),  and  no  two  at  the  same  stage  of 
advancement,  this  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  method  to 
follow.  But  it  was  used  not  only  under  these  circumstances 
but  also  when  schools  were  quite  large  and  contained  many 
students  doing  the  same  work.  For  example,  it  was  used  in 
the  dame  schools,  where  there  were  only  beginners  learning 
to  read.  Even  if  there  were  twenty  pupils,  the  teacher  would 
call  up  each  one  in  turn  and,  pointing  at  the  alphabet,  would 
say,  "  That  is  A  ;  that  is  B  ;  that  is  C."  Then,  pointing  at 
"  A,"  she  would  ask  the  child,  "  What 's  that  ?  "  and  so  on. 
Similar  methods  were  used  in  advanced  classes  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  (for  example,  in  arithmetic)  and  also  in  the 
Latin  grammar  schools.  The  picture  given  on  page  363 
illustrates  this  practice. 

Exceptions  in  schools  of  La  Salle  and  Lancaster,  —  Excep- 
tions to  the  dominant  individual  method  down  to  the  first 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  commonly  given  in  the 
histories  of  education  as  forerunners  of  a  significant  educa- 
tional reform.  These  exceptions  are  few  and  notable.  On  the 
theoretical  side,  Comenius  (1592-1670),  the  great  educational 
innovator  of  the  seventeenth  century,  proposed  to  substitute 
class  instruction  for  the  individual  method.  On  the  prac- 
tical side,  La  Salle  (1651-1719),  who  organized  the  Brethren 
of  the  Christian  Schools  in  1684,  introduced  simultaneous  class 
instruction  on  a  large  scale  in  the  schools  of  this  organization, 
which  provided  very  efficient  instruction  throughout  France. 
The  Lancasterian  monitorial  system,  which  was  popular  in 
large  American  cities  from  1805  to  1830,  also  organized  class 
or  group  instruction  very  effectively.  In  this  system  the  groups 
were  very  carefully  graded  so  as  to  contain  about  ten  pupils 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  365 

of  almost  equal  rank.  Each  group  was  taught  by  a  bright, 
capable  student  known  as  a  monitor. 

Simultaneous  instruction.  Adopted  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  -  -  These  successful  innovations  contrasted  very 
strongly  with  the  poor  instruction  that  prevailed  in  the  ordi- 
nary schools  which  were  using  the  method  of  individual  in- 
struction. During  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  fairly 
careful  grading  of  the  large  numbers  of  students  attending 
city  schools  became  the  dominant  practice,  and  along  with 
this  there  developed  the  almost  universal  use  of  the  simul- 
taneous method  of  class  instruction  in  all  cities.  Naturally, 
since  the  results  accomplished  under  this  system  were  so 
superior  (partially  owing  to  simultaneous  instruction  but  also 
partially  caused  by  other  innovations),  it  seldom  occurred  to 
a  school-teacher  or  administrator  that  any  improvement  could 
be  introduced  as  a  modification  of  the  simultaneous  method. 
"  Had  n't  it  supplanted  the  individual  method  with  greatly  im- 
proved results  ?  "  they  thought.  "What  else  could  be  desired  ? " 

Criticized  by  W.  T.  Harris.  —  This  feeling  of  thorough 
satisfaction  with  pure  simultaneous  instruction  was  not  shared 
by  all  school  authorities,  however.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  few  of  the  more  progressive  leaders 
began  to  call  attention  to  the  defects  in  this  method  and  to 
suggest  modifications  which  would  make  some  provision  for 
varying  class  instruction  so  as  to  meet  the  needs  of  students 
of  different  degrees  of  ability.  Perhaps  the  greatest  practical 
public-school  administrator  of  this  period  was  William  T. 
Harris  (1835-1908),  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the 
United  States  from  1889  to  1906.  As  superintendent  of  the 
schools  of  St.  Louis  from  1867  to  1880  Mr.  Harris  intro- 
duced many  remarkable  reforms  which  were  adopted  by  other 
cities  much  later.  He  appreciated  the  advantages  as  well  as 
the  defects  of  the  method  of  simultaneous  instruction  and 
called  attention  to  both  in  an  article  published  in  1872.  The 
advantages,  he  said,  are  : 


366  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

(a)  a  great  increase  in  the  length  of  recitation  [for  each  pupil, 
since  each  had  as  much  time  as  his  group] ;  (£)  far  more  thorough- 
ness in  the  discussion  of  the  lesson,  sifting  the  different  statements 
and  probing  the  meaning  of  the  same ;  (V)  great  stimulation  of  the 
mental  activity  of  the  pupil  through  trial  and  competition  with  other 
members  of  his  class.  These  three  advantages  can  scarcely  be 
overestimated.  They  multiply  the  teacher's  power  just  as  organi- 
zation improves  the  strength  of  the  army.  (1 :  266) 

On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Harris  described  the  disadvantages 
of  simultaneous  instruction  in  the  following  words  : 

It  is  this  very  system  that  is  so  organized  as  to  prove  the  very 
greatest  of  all  causes  for  the  early  withdrawal  from  school.  .  .  . 
The  tendency  of  all  classification  is  to  unite  pupils  of  widely  differ- 
ent attainments.  .  .  .  The  consequence  is  that  the  lesson  is  too 
short  for  some  and  too  long  for  others.  The  best  pupils  in  class 
are  not  tried  to  the  extent  of  their  ability.  .  .  .  The  poorest  pupils 
of  the  class  are  strained  to  their  utmost.  They  are  dragged,  as  it 
were,  over  the  ground.  .  .  .  This  develops  the  result  that  the 
overworked  pupils  are  frequently  discouraged  and  drop  out  of  the 
class  and  likely  enough  out  of  the  school  altogether.  (1 :  266) 

Lock-step  in  education  condemned  by  P.  W.  Search.  —  Per- 
haps the  most  vehement  critic  of  the  simultaneous  method 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  P.  W. 
Search,  who  wrote  a  book  called  "An  Ideal  School  "  (1901), 
in  which  he  described  experiments  to  provide  for  individual 
differences  in  capacity,  that  were  undertaken  in  school  systems 
of  which  he  had  been  superintendent.  These  experiments 
will  be  described  below  (p.  379).  Mr.  Search  was  typical  of 
a  small  group  of  schoolmen  who  were  vigorous  in  their  con- 
demnation of  what  they  called  "  the  lock  step  in  American 
education,"  thus  tending  to  attach  to  the  simultaneous  method 
the  odium  of  a  prison  practice.  These  men  had  relatively  little 
effect  upon  educational  practices,  and  it  was  not  until  after  1900 
that  there  developed  any  strong  tendency  to  provide  for  indi- 
vidual differences  in  capacity  in  instruction  in  public  schools. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  367 

Recent  enthusiastic  interest  in  individual  differences.  — 
Since  1900  there  has  been  a  very  radical  change  in  the  gen- 
eral attitude  toward  provisions  for  individual  differences.  In 
fact,  in  contrast  with  the  general  indifference  which  preceded, 
the  present  period  is  marked  by  enthusiastic  endeavor  not  only 
to  modify  or  supplement  the  simultaneous  method  but  also  to 
provide  for  individual  differences  by  the  organization  of  special 
schools  and  classes  for  students  of  different  types  of  ability 
and  interest. 

Stimulated  by  statistical  demonstrations  of  differences  and 
waste.  —  One  of  the  most  important  influences  in  bringing 
about  this  change  of  sentiment  has  been  the  statistical  inves- 
tigations of  the  amount  of  difference  in  capacity  which  pre- 
vails in  the  ordinary  graded  classes,  supplemented  by  statistical 
studies  of  the  retardation  of  students  and  of  the  amount  of 
time  wasted  through  students  getting  behind  grade.  The  work 
of  Professor  E.  L.  Thorndike  and  Dr.  Leonard  Ayers  has 
been  particularly  influential  in  this  connection.  Thorndike's 
"Educational  Psychology,"  published  in  1903  (revised,  1910 
and  1913),  and  his  "Principles  of  Teaching"  (1906),  con- 
tained chapters  which  demonstrated  clearly,  on  a  statistical 
basis,  just  how  great  the  amount  of  difference  in  capacity 
between  the  fast  and  the  slow  members  of  an  ordinary  class 
really  is.  The  general  statement  of  this  amount  of  differ- 
ence is  made  in  his  "  Principles  of  Teaching  "  in  the  fol- 
lowing words : 

Roughly  speaking,  the  teacher  of  a  class,  even  in  a  school  graded 
as  closely  as  is  possible  in  large  cities,  where  two  classes  are  pro- 
vided in  each  building  for  each  grade  and  where  promotion  occurs 
every  six  months,  will  find  in  the  case  of  any  kind  of  work  some 
pupil  who  can  do  from  two  to  five  times  as  much  in  the  same  time, 
or  do  the  same  amount  from  two  to  five  times  as  well,  as  some 
other  pupil.  The  highest  tenth  of  her  class  will  in  any  one  trait 
have  an  average  ability  from  one  and  three-fourths  to  four  times 
that  of  the  lowest  tenth.  (10 :  73) 


368  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Sample  papers  show  extreme  differences  in  ability.  —  As 
a  sample  of  typical  variations  in  ability  in  high-school  classes, 
Thorndike  gives  two  Latin  translations,  of  which  portions  are 
quoted  below. 

Two  translations  made  by  two  pupils  [A  and  B]  of  the  same 
grade  and  class  (and  age). 

The  passage  to  be  translated  was  as  follows : 

Atticus  adolescentulus  propter  affinitatem  P.  Sulpicii,  qui  tribu- 
nus  plebi  interfectus  est,  non  expers  fuit  illius  periculi.  Namque 
Anicia,  Pomponii  consobrina,  nupserat  (M.)  Servio,  fratri  Sulpicii. 
Itaque  interfecto  Sulpicio,  posteaquam  vidit  Cinnano  tumultu  civi- 
tatem  esse  perturbatam  neque  sibi  dari  facultatem  pro  dignitate 
vivendi,  quin  alterutram  pattern  offenderet,  dissociatis  animis  civium, 
cum  alii  Sullanis,  alii  Cinnanis  faverent  partibus,  idoneum  tempus 
ratus  studiis  obsequendi  suis,  Athenas  se  contulit 

A's  TRANSLATION 

Atticus  a  young  man  because  of  his  friendship  with  Sulpicius, 
the  tribune  of  the  people  who  was  killed  was  not  free  from  this 
danger.  For  Anicia  the  wife  of  Pomponius  had  nursed  Servius, 
brother  of  Sulpicius.  And  so  after  Sulpicius  was  killed  and  after 
he  saw  that  the  state  was  aroused  by  the  revolt  of  Cinna  and  that 
no  opportunity  was  given  for  him  to  live  in  accordance  with  his 
dignity  without  offending  one  or  other  of  the  parties,  for  the  minds 
of  the  people  were  divided,  some  favoring  the  party  of  Sulla,  some 
that  of  Cinna,  and  after  he  thought  it  was  a  proper  time  for  pur- 
suing his  studies,  he  betook  himself  to  Athens. 

B's  TRANSLATION 

Atticus  a  youth  on  account  of  P.  Sulpicus  who  was  a  trib- 

une of  the  people,  was  not  of  his  danger.   And  for  Anicia, 

of  Pompey,  had  ,  the  father  of  Sulpicuo.    And  so 

by  the  killing  of  Sulpicius,  after  he  saw  the  state  to  be  disturbed 
by  a  tumult  nor  to  give  to  himself  the  ability  on  account  of  his 
dignity,  that  might  offend  the  other  part,  the  unassociated  minds 
of  the  citizens,  with  some  Sullani  other  Cinnane  might  be  favored 
by  some  the  time  was  followed  with  their  desires,  Athens 

carried  itself. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  369 

In  comparing  these  translations  it  is  obvious  that  pupil  B 
needs  considerable  quizzing  and  discussion  to  enable  him  to 
get  the  desired  results,  but  that  most  of  the  time  spent  in 
the  ordinary  translation  activity  in  class  would  be  wasted  for 
pupil  A.  It  is  evident  that  the  ordinary  method  of  simulta- 
neous class  instruction  fails  to  provide  adequately  for  either 
of  these  pupils. 

A  similar  contrast  appears  in  the  case  of  the  two  algebra 
papers  quoted  on  page  370,  from  Thorndike's  "  Principles 
of  Teaching."  These  papers  were  written  by  two  pupils, 
A  and  B,  members  of  the  same  class,  in  a  test  in  algebra. 
The  test  on  which  they  were  based  is  given  below. 

Do  these  examples  as  quickly  as  you  can. 

.Do  not  copy  them,  but  put  the  work  right  under  each  example. 
Take  the  quickest  way  you  can  to  get  the  correct  answers. 
i.  Simplify 


2.  What  are  the  values  of  x  and  y  if 

=  8         and         7X  ~  3J  =  4 


3.  A  shepherd,  being  asked  how  many  sheep  he  had  in  his  flock, 
said,  "  If  I  had  as  many  more,  half  as  many  more,  and  seven  sheep 
and  a  half,  I  should  then  have  500."    How  many  sheep  had  he? 

4.  What  are  the  values  of  x  and  y  if 


x—y      x—y 

c.  Simplify 

m  +  n      m  —  n 

m  —  n  m  -+-  n 
m  —  n  m  -\-  n 
m  +  n  m  —  n 

6.  If,  to  the  double  of  a  certain  number,  14  be  added,  the  sum 
is  154.   What  is  the  number? 


370  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

A's  PAPER 


B's  PAPER 


(2,j 


'-   4  <v«v-«.  -/v.* 


Teachers  should  understand  use  of  median  and  mode.  — 
In  order  to  develop  some  skill  in  estimating  the  range  of 
ability  represented  in  classes,  teachers  should  have  some  prac- 
tice in  examining  tables  showing  the  distribution  of  abilities 
or  achievements,  such  as  those  given  on  page  373.  A  most 
necessary  and  useful  figure  for  making  comparisons  is  one 
that  will  represent  the  "center  of  gravity,"  or  central  tend- 
ency of  the  group.  Ordinarily,  persons  who  have  not  had 
statistical  training  use  the  average  for  this  purpose,  but  this 
usually  involves  elaborate  calculations  which  consume  time. 
A  simpler  method  is  to  find  the  median  (that  is,  the  point 
on  either  side  of  which  lie  50  per  cent  of  the  cases)  by  noting 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  371 

the  total  number  of  cases,  dividing  by  2  to  get  half  the  num- 
ber, and  then  counting  in  this  amount  from  either  end.  A 
still  easier  figure  to  use  to  represent  the  central  tendency  of 
a  group  that  is  normally  distributed  is  the  mode.  This  is  the 
most  frequent  grade  of  ability  shown  in  the  table.  Thus,  in 
the  left-hand  table  on  page  373  the  mode  would  be  40  to  44. 
In  this  case  it  is  almost  the  same  as  the  median. 

Teachers  should  study  statistical  tables  of  abilities.  —  The 
reader  should  now  examine  the  left-hand  table  on  page  373 
and  derive  the  answers  to  the  following  questions  : 

1 .  What  is  the  lowest  score  made  ? 

2.  What  is  the  highest  score  made  ? 

3.  How  many  times  is  the  lowest  score  contained  in 
the  highest  ? 

4.  How  many  individuals  approximated  the  lowest  score  ? 

5 .  How  many  approximated  the  highest  score  ? 

6.  What  is  the  most  frequent  score  made ;  that  is,  the 
mode  ? 

7.  How  many  times  is  the  mode  contained  in  the  highest 
score  (or  scores)  ? 

8.  If  the  instruction  is  adapted  to  the  middle  part  of  the 
class  (roughly,  the  mode),  how  much  time  will  the  brightest 
pupil  (or  pupils)  probably  have  to  spare  ? 

9.  How  many  times  is  the  lowest  score  (or  are  the  lowest 
scores)  contained  in  the  mode  ? 

10.  If  the  instruction  is  adapted  to  the  middle  part  of  the 
class,  how  many  times  too  fast  will  the  pace  be  for  the  slowest 
pupil  (or  pupils)  ? 

Answer  the  same  questions  for  the  table  on  page  374. 

Bright  pupil  may  have  half  of  his  time  to  spare. —  When- 
ever a  table  showing  the  distribution  of  abilities  of  students 
in  classes  is  found,  it  should  be  studied  by  deriving  the 
answers  to  the  above  questions.  This  practice  will  make  con- 
crete and  fix  in  the  student's  mind  the  statement  that  in 
the  ordinary  graded  classes  that  are  taught  entirely  by  the 


372  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

simultaneous  method  the  brightest  pupils  are  likely  to  have 
from  one  fourth  to  one  half  of  their  time  to  spare  and  the 
slowest  to  be  dragged  along  at  a  pace  that  is  twice  as  great 
as  it  should  be  for  them.  Even  worse  is  the  condition  when 
the  whole  class  period  is  used  merely  for  class  recitations  on 
material  studied  at  home.  Under  these  conditions  the  whole 
class  period  is  often  wasted  for  the  brightest  pupils,  while 
the  slowest  ones  get  almost  nothing  out  of  it. 

Distribution  of  abilities  in  high-school  classes.  Speed  in 
reading.  —  Courtis  investigated  the  speed  attained  in  normal 
rapid  reading  and  in  careful  reading  among  one  hundred 
seventy-five  high-school  children.  He  concluded  that  if  his 
test  had  been  so  administered  as  to  give  the  fastest  readers 
a  chance  to  do  their  best,  the 

pupils  would  undoubtedly  have  varied  from  200  words  per  minute 
to  500  words  per  minute  for  normal  reading,  and  from  60  words 
per  minute  to  400  words  per  minute  for  careful  reading.  When 
the  vital  nature  of  ability  to  read  and  understand  is  considered, 
this  range  of  ability  to  read  the  simplest  prose  becomes  very 
significant.  (12 :  389) 

Although  Courtis  gives  these  comparisons  for  the  high  school 
as  a  whole,  they  probably  apply  equally  to  the  range  in  a 
given  grade,  since  his  figures  show  little  change  in  the  aver- 
age rate  of  reading  throughout  the  grades. 

Algebra,  —  W.  S.  Monroe  investigated  the  abilities  of  first- 
year  high-school  students  in  algebra  by  using  a  series  of  care- 
fully devised  tests.  He  secured  such  results  as  are  shown  in 
the  table  on  page  374. 

Arithmetic.  —  In  an  investigation  of  methods  of  teaching 
commercial  arithmetic  in  high  schools,  G.  A.  Beers  conducted, 
in  his  regular  high-school  arithmetic  classes,  tests  in  the  vari- 
ous phases  of  the  subject  —  addition,  subtraction,  multipli- 
cation, aliquot  parts,  etc.  The  results  were  carefully  scored  and 
distribution  tables  constructed  for  each  class  in  each  process. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY 


373 


ABILITIES  OF   SIXTH-GRADE 
GIRLS    IN    OBSERVING    MIS- 
SPELLED WORDS 


ABILITIES  OF  FOURTH-GRADE 

GlRLS    IN    THINKING   OF    THE 

OPPOSITES  OF  WORDS 


NUMBER  OF  MIS- 

NUMBER OF 

SCORE  MADE  IN  TEST 

NUMBER  OF 

SPELLINGS  NOTICED 

CHILDREN 

WITH  OPPOSITES 

CHILDREN 

10  to  14 

I  girl 

-9  to  -5 

3  girls 

15  to  19 

6  girls 

—  4  to  o 

5  girls 

2O  to  24 

10  girls 

o  to  4 

8  girls 

25  to  29 

1  8  girls 

5  to  9 

10  girls 

30  to  34 

25  girls 

10  to  14 

33  girls 

35  to  39 

27  girls 

15  to  19 

36  girls 

40  to  44 

35  girls 

20  to  24 

29  girls 

45  to  49 

1  8  girls 

25  to  29 

1  6  girls 

50  to  54 

25  girls 

3°  to  34 

ii  girls 

55  to  59 

17  girls 

35  to  39 

4  girls 

60  to  64 

1  8  girls 

40  to  44 

3  girls 

05  to  09 
70  to  74 
75  to  79 
80  to  84 

10  girls 

3  Sirls 
2  girls 
2  girls 

The   minus  scores  given  above   result 
from  a  pupil's  writing  the  wrong  oppo- 
sites  for  words  and  not  writing  enough 

85  to  89 

i  girl 

correct  opposites  to  balance  her  errors 

90  to  94 

i  girl 

GRAPHIC   REPRESENTATION   OF   THE   ABOVE   STATISTICS 

NOTE.  The  above  data,  quoted  from  Thorndike's  "  Principles  of  Teaching," 
illustrate  the  use  of  tables  of  frequency  and  graphic  methods  of  representing 
the  same. 


374 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


ABILITIES  OF  FIRST-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  STUDENTS  IN  ALGEBRA 

A  two-minute  test  in  working  simple  multiplication  problems 
in  algebra  of  the  type  4(3  x  —  4)=  ? ,    —  5  (—  4  x  6 x)=  ? 


NUMBER  OF  EXAMPLES 

DONE 

ATTEMPTS 

RIGHTS 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

34 

I 

I 

33 

I 

I 

32 

I 

I 

31 

30 

I 

I 

I 

I 

29 

I 

I 

28 

I 

I 

27 

I 

4 

5 

2 

2 

26 

3 

i 

4 

2 

I, 

3 

25 

2 

2 

4 

I 

2 

3 

24 

5 

2 

7 

3 

I 

4 

23 

5 

8 

13 

4 

6 

10 

22 

7 

8 

15 

4 

4 

8 

21 

3 

9 

12 

2 

7 

9 

20 

2 

6 

8 

3 

IO 

13 

19 

7 

8 

IS 

6 

3 

9 

18 

'3 

J3 

26 

ii 

7 

18 

17 

12 

i5 

27 

8 

8 

16 

16 

II 

18 

29 

10 

14 

24 

»5 

17 

17 

34 

12 

14 

26 

14 

7 

7 

H 

12 

16 

28 

»3 

7 

16 

23 

IO 

ii 

21 

12 

3 

7 

10 

5 

7 

12 

II 

3 

6 

9 

5 

3 

8 

10 

5 

2 

7 

4 

9 

13 

9 

i 

I 

2 

3 

4 

7 

8 

3 

3 

3 

9 

12 

7 

I 

i 

i 

3 

4 

6 

2 

2 

2 

4 

6 

5 

3 

i 

4 

4 

2 

2 

3 

I 

I 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

2 

I 

I 

I 

2 

0 

I 

I 

2 

DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  3/5 

Approximately  the  same  range  of  variation  in  abilities  was 
shown  as  in  the  case  of  elementary-school  classes ;  that  is,  the 
brightest  students  did  from  four  to  six  times  as  much  as  the 
slowest  ones  and  (roughly)  twice  as  much  as  the  median  pupils. 

Teachers  should  learn  to  make  and  read  graphs  of  differ- 
ences in  abilities.  —  As  a  result  of  such  statistical  practice  as 
that  described  on  page  371  the  teacher  or  prospective  teacher 
should  get  into  the  habit  of  thinking  of  any  fair-sized  class 
that  he  teaches  as  being  a  group  made  of  a  great  variety  of 
abilities  distributed  with  the  mode  near  the  middle  and  with 
fewer  students  for  each  degree  of  ability  as  one  proceeds  toward 
the  high  and  low  ends  of  the  class.  In  order  to  make  it  easier 
to  think  of  this  condition,  it  is  desirable  to  draw  graphs  show- 
ing the  distribution  of  abilities  in  pictured  form  so  that  it  can 
easily  be  taken  in  at  a  glance.  Such  graphs  are  sometimes 
called  surfaces  of  frequency  and  are  most  easily  made  on 
square-ruled  or  cross-section  paper.  Degrees  of  ability  are 
represented  from  left  to  right  on  the  horizontal  line,  and  the 
number  of  cases  for  each  degree  of  ability  is  represented  by 
the  height  of  the  column  erected  at  the  appropriate  place  on 
the  horizontal,  or  base,  line. 

A  simple  explanation  of  such  a  surface  of  frequency  is 
given  by  Thorndike  in  connection  with  the  distribution  of 
stature  in  American  boys  ten  and  a  half  years  old.  He  says  : 

Out  of  1000  boys  there  are 

Between  109  and  1 13  centimeters  tall,  2  boys 
Between  1 1 3  and  1 1 7  centimeters  tall,  5  boys 
Between  117  and  121  centimeters  tall,  25  boys 
Between  121  and  125  centimeters  tall,  97  boys 
Between  125  and  129  centimeters  tall,  199  boys 
Between  129  and  133  centimeters  tall,  255  boys 
Between  133  and  137  centimeters  tall,  228  boys 
Between  137  and  141  centimeters  tall,  126  boys 
Between  141  and  145  centimeters  tall,  49  boys 
Between  145  and  149  centimeters  tall,  n  boys 
Between  149  and  153  centimeters  tall,  4  boys 


376  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  facts  of  the  above  table  become  clearer  to  the  eye  if, 
instead  of  the  numbers  2,  5,  25,  97,  etc.,  we  draw  1000  little 
lines  as  in  [the  first  of  the  figures  below],  letting  each  line  stand 
for  one  boy.  (9  :  9) 


|  _  _  | p====|=====)=====fE====j=====|=i=^«^=sS|...-  , 

109  cm    113          111          HI          1£S          129         138         JSr         141         146         146         ISSCM 

EXAMPLE  OF  A  SURFACE  OF  FREQUENCY,  REPRESENTING  STATURE 

OF  1000  AMERICAN  BOYS 
Represents  statistics  shown  in  table  on  page  375 


mem  Ji3      nr      m      its      no      133      137     ui      us      1*9      isacm 

EXAMPLE  OF  A  DISTRIBUTION  CURVE.     SAME  DATA  AS  THAT  PRE- 
SENTED ABOVE,  BUT  REPRESENTED  HERE  AS  AN  OUTLINE  INSTEAD 

OF  AS  A  SURFACE 
From  Thorndike's  "  Individuality  " 

Proceeding  in  a  similar  way,  the  left-hand  figure  on  page  373 
is  drawn  to  represent  the  facts  given  in  the  table  shown  above 
the  drawing.  Beginning  at  the  left,  or  lower  end  of  ability, 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  377 

the  curve  would  read,  in  a  rough  way,  as  follows :  Here  is 
one  subject  who  made  a  score  of  10  to  14.  As  we  proceed 
to  the  right  the  piles  increase  in  size  until  we  reach  the  mode 
at  40  to  44  ;  from  here  to  the  right  the  piles  decrease  in 
size  until  we  reach  the  highest  score  at  90  to  94,  repre- 
sented by  one  girl. 

Human  abilities  distributed  according  to  normal-frequency 
surface. — The  graphs,  or  surfaces,  pictured  on  pages  376-377 
approximate  what  is  known  as  the  normal-frequency  surface. 
The  measurements  of  any  biological  characteristic  (plant  or 
animal),  which  is  studied  in  a  sufficient  number  of  cases  of 


MEMORY  SPAN   FOR  DIGITS   IN  REACTION     TIMES    OF     252    COL- 

129   WOMEN   STUDENTS  LEGE   FRESHMEN 

Curves  showing  general  type  of  distribution  of  simple  mental  abilities  of  mature 
students.   After  Thomdike.    (15  :  325) 

individuals  of  the  same  general  type,  will  appear  in  the  form 
of  the  normal-frequency  surface  when  they  are  plotted.  In 
the  case  of  human  beings  these  biological  measurements  might 
be  made  of  a  very  simple  characteristic,  such  as  the  length  of 
the  second  joint  of  the  index  finger  in  five  hundred  English 
male  adults ;  or  they  might  be  of  a  very  complex  charac- 
teristic, such  as  the  height  of  English  male  adults  (total 
height  being  considered  complex  because  it  is  really  com- 
posed of  the  sum  total  of  the  lengths  of  a  great  many 
bones).  Even  measurements  of  mental  characteristics  of 
human  beings  who  are  all  of  the  same  general  type  show 
this  normal  form  of  distribution.  Thus,  if  we  tested  three 
hundred  first-year  high-school  boys  in  their  ability  to  add 


378  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

numbers,  to  memorize  nonsense  syllables,  to  mark  out  all 
the  verbs  in  a  printed  page,  etc.  the  surfaces  of  frequency 
which  we  should  get  when  the  results  were  plotted  would 
approximate  the  normal  curve.  Examples  of  such  curves  of 
distribution  or  surfaces  of  frequency  for  human  abilities  are 
shown  in  the  figures  on  page  377. 

Hence  abilities  and  marks  in  ordinary  classes  follow  normal 
curve.  —  Similar  normal  curves  are  obtained  if  the  marks 
made  by  a  sufficient  number  of  students  of  the  same  grade 
in  any  school  subject  are  tabulated  and  then  plotted,  pro- 
vided these  marks  represent  the  real  relative  achievements. 
Thus,  if  a  teacher  of  algebra  with  five  classes  of  thirty  stu- 
dents each  would  give  at  the  end  of  the  first  semester  a 
test  which  would  give  all  pupils  a  chance  to  show  just  how 
much  and  how  well  they  could  do  in  a  limited  period  of 
time,  the  one  hundred  fifty  scores  which  resulted  would 
prove  to  be  distributed  according  to  the  normal  curve.  A 
special  technique  must  be  observed  in  such  testing,  which 
will  be  discussed  in  Chapter  XXII.  The  distributions  shown 
in  Monroe's  table  on  page  374  give  the  results  of  such  an 
algebra  test  and  illustrate  the  normal  distribution  of  abilities 
of  high-school  students. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  reliable  tests  of  the  mental  abili- 
ties of  nonselected  groups  show  the  normal  distribution,  the 
teacher  of  any  subject  in  high  school  should  form  the  habit 
of  expecting  such  a  distribution  of  the  term  grades  or  final 
grades  of  his  students  when  he  has  a  sufficient  number ;  that 
is,  if  he  has  only  five,  ten,  or  even  fifteen  students  in  one 
class  in  algebra,  the  distribution  might  be  different,  but  if 
he  has  fifty  in  two  or  more  classes,  the  chances  are  pretty 
large  that  the  normal  distribution  will  be  found,  and  this  is 
almost  certain  if  he  has  ninety  or  more  pupils  in  the  same 
subject  and  grade.  (Compare  13  and  14.)  In  more  con- 
crete terms,  this  would  mean  that  if  the  teacher  was  using 
a  marking  system  consisting  of  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E, 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  379 

his  grades  or  marks  in  the  long  run  should  be  distributed 
roughly  as  follows : 

3  per  cent  of  the  grades  should  be  A 
22  per  cent  of  the  grades  should  be  B 
50  per  cent  of  the  grades  should  be  C 
22  per  cent  of  the  grades  should  be  D 

3  per  cent  of  the  grades  should  be  E 

Typical  experiments  in  adapting  instruction  to  differences 
in  capacity.  —  The  statistical  proofs  of  the  amount  of  the 
differences  in  capacity  to  be  found  in  ordinary  classes  have 
aroused  a  general  interest  in  securing  a  means  of  modifying 
the  method  of  simultaneous  class  instruction  in  such  a  way 
as  to  vary  the  pace  for  the  slow,  the  medium,  and  the  fast 
pupils.  A  number  of  experiments  have  been  tried,  and  some 
of  these  will  be  discussed  under  the  following  headings  : 

1.  Abolishing  all  class  instruction  and  reverting  to  the 
individual  method  :  the  Pueblo  plan. 

2.  Self-conducted  homogeneous  groups  :  a  modified  form 
of  the  monitorial  scheme. 

3.  Recitations  only  for  students  who  need  them  ;  seat  work 
for  others. 

4.  Required  supervised  study  periods  supplementary  to 
recitation  periods  :  the  Batavia  scheme. 

i.  Abolishing  class  instruction  and  reverting  to  individ- 
ual instruction:  the  Pueblo  plan.  —  In  1888  P.  W.  Search 
became  superintendent  of  the  schools  of  Pueblo,  Colorado. 
He  found  the  parents  of  the  high-school  students  complain- 
ing of  over-pressure  in  connection  with  home  study.  To 
relieve  this  situation,  all  home  study  was  abolished  and 
experiments  undertaken  to  have  all  studying  done  during 
school  hours.  The  final  result  was  a  scheme  in  which 
studying  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  school  day  and 
nearly  all  recitations  were  abolished.  Each  pupil,  working 
at  his  desk,  advanced  as  rapidly  as  he  could  master  the  as- 
signments. Naturally,  some  did  much  more  than  others. 


380  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

For  example,  Mr.  Search,  in  his  book  entitled  "An  Ideal 
School,"  describes  the  achievements  of  the  members  of  a 
Latin  class  that  was  studying  Caesar.  During  a  given  length 
of  time  the  fastest  pupil  completed  140  chapters,  the  slowest 
only  40  chapters.  One  pupil  completed  no  chapters,  three 
completed  95,  five  completed  90,  and  one  completed  only 
45.  The  rest  of  the  members  were  distributed  between 
these  extremes. 

These  figures  show  approximately  the  same  relations  be- 
tween students  of  different  degrees  of  ability  as  were  brought 
out  in  the  tables  given  above.  Thus  the  brightest  pupil  did 
three  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  the  slowest,  and  twice  as 
much  as  the  median.  Instead  of  marking  time  while  most 
of  the  class  accomplished  the  amount  ordinarily  done,  the 
brightest  forged  ahead.  Moreover,  instead  of  the  slow  pupils 
being  dragged  over  assignments  which  they  had  not  mas- 
tered, they  worked  diligently  as  long  as  was  necessary  on  the 
amount  that  they  were  capable  of  mastering.  There  was 
evidence  in  the  form  of  individual  recitations  and  quizzes 
and  examinations  to  show  that  pupils  who  covered  given 
assignments  did  so  satisfactorily. 

Several  favorable  reports  on  Pueblo  plan.  —  The  Pueblo 
plan  was  tried  in  a  few  other  places,  and  in  some  cases  very 
favorable  reports  were  made  concerning  its  success.  Occa- 
sionally graduate  students  in  my  classes,  who  have  been 
skilled  high-school  teachers,  have  reported  that  they  use  the 
Pueblo  scheme  regularly  in  teaching  classes  in  mathematics 
and  have  found  it  works  quite  satisfactorily.  They  state  that 
they  never  have  any  class  discussions  even  in  attacking  a  new 
principle.  Each  pupil  begins  work  on  a  given  principle  or 
new  operation  when  he  reaches  it,  and  the  teacher,  in  passing 
around  the  room,  watches  him  and  makes  such  suggestions 
as  the  student  seems  to  need. 

Too  difficult  for  unskilled  teacher  to  keep  track  of  one  hun- 
dred fifty  individuals.  —  One  of  my  students  (Mr.  I.  M.  Allen), 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  381 

however,  reported  an  experiment  with  the  Pueblo  plan  that 
brought  out  a  serious  objection  to  its  being  used  by  any 
except  skilled,  resourceful  teachers.  As  principal  of  a  large 
high  school  he  was  interested  in  finding  some  method  that 
his  teachers  could  use  to  meet  the  needs  of  pupils  of  varying 
capacities.  He  decided  to  try  the  Pueblo  plan  himself  with 
an  algebra  class  before  asking  his  teachers  to  use  it.  He  did 
so,  and  found  that  it  accomplished  all  that  was  claimed  for  it 
by  its  advocates,  but  that  it  taxed  his  ingenuity  and  resource- 
fulness to  keep  track  of  thirty  students  in  one  class,  all  of 
whom  were  progressing  at  different  rates.  He  decided  that  if 
it  troubled  him  to  keep  track  of  thirty  pupils  by  the  method 
of  pure  individual  instruction,  it  would  be  entirely  too  much 
to  expect  an  ordinary  mathematics  teacher  to  keep  track  of 
one  hundred  fifty  students,  assuming  that  he  had  five  classes 
with  thirty  students  in  each. 

Additional  objections  to  the  Pueblo  plan  are  based  on  its 
elimination  of  all  the  social  elements  that  accompany  the  class 
method  of  instruction.  The  chief  value  lost  is  the  training  in 
expression  that  students  receive  in  well-conducted  contribution 
recitations.  Another  important  loss  is  the  training  in  think- 
ing in  a  complex  social  situation  such  as  the  group  recitation 
offers.  In  view  of  these  losses,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  track  of  so  many  individuals  at  different  stages  of 
advancement,  most  educators  would  not  favor  the  Pueblo 
plan  with  its  abolishing  of  class  recitations. 

2.  Self -conducted  homogeneous  groups :  a  modified  form  of 
the  monitorial  system. — A  modified  form  of  the  monitorial 
system  was  used  for  years  in  the  geometry  classes  in  the 
high  school  which  I  attended.  The  classes  usually  num- 
bered from  twenty  to  twenty-five  students  and  met  in  fairly 
large  rooms  with  ample  blackboard  space.  Each  class  was 
divided  into  three  sections  containing  from  six  to  eight  stu- 
dents each.  The  brightest  students  composed  the  first  section, 
the  medium  students  the  second,  and  the  slow  students  the 


382  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

third  section.  The  first  section  had  as  a  permanent  monitor, 
or  captain,  one  of  its  most  capable  students  ;  that  is,  one  who 
possessed  executive  and  teaching  ability  as  well  as  ability  in 
mathematics.  The  second  section  had  a  similar  monitor  from 
among  its  own  numbers,  one  who  might  not  be  as  capable  or 
quick  in  mathematics  as  the  members  of  the  first  section,  but 
who  was  among  the  best  in  his  own  section  and  had  execu- 
tive and  teaching  capacity.  For  the  third  or  slow  section, 
monitors  from  the  other  sections  were  provided  from  week 
to  week  or  for  slightly  longer  periods.  Each  of  these  moni- 
tors for  the  third  section  would  be  absent  from  the  recitations 
of  his  own  section  during  his  period  of  service  with  the  third 
section,  but  he  could  easily  keep  up  or  catch  up  with  his 
own  section. 

Bright  section  completes  plane  and  solid  geometry  in  one 
year.  —  After  the  teacher  had  got  the  class  started  as  a 
single  group  on  the  first  book,  and  some  of  the  funda- 
mental ideas  of  geometric  procedure  had  been  established, 
the  sections  were  organized  on  the  basis  of  the  students' 
records  in  previous  work  as  well  as  their  ability  as  shown 
in  the  new  work.  Each  section  was  then  assigned  a  corner 
of  the  room  as  its  regular  recitation  place,  and  henceforth 
each  section  proceeded  at  its  own  pace  through  the  geometry. 
The  first  section  commonly  completed  the  plane  and  solid 
parts  of  Wentworth's  Geometry  in  one  year.  The  medium 
section  usually  completed  the  plane  geometry  only  (that  is, 
five  books),  as  is  commonly  done  by  classes  using  the  simul- 
taneous method.  The  slow  section  usually  got  through  about 
four  books,  but  most  of  its  members  managed  to  do  this  much 
with  a  fair  degree  of  thoroughness,  instead  of  being  dragged 
over  the  whole  five  books  in  an  uncomprehending  way,  as 
commonly  occurs  when  the  ordinary  class  method  is  used. 

Three  recitations  simultaneously  tvithout  confusion.  —  At 
the  beginning  of  each  recitation  period  the  monitor  of  each 
section  assigned  each  student  a  proposition  or  exercise  to 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  383 

demonstrate.  Each  pupil  put  on  the  blackboard  the  figure 
to  be  used  in  his  demonstration,  with  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant statements  in  the  demonstration.  This  usually  took 
from  five  to  ten  minutes.  The  remainder  of  the  period  was 
spent  by  each  section  listening  to  and  discussing  the  demon- 
strations by  its  members.  Usually  these  were  demonstrations 
that  had  been  studied  out  at  home,  but  if  the  teacher  were 
wise  enough  to  suggest  it,  the  period  was  partially  used  for 
group  study  and  discussion  of  new  propositions  or  exercises. 
Inasmuch  as  no  rowdy  behavior  was  tolerated  in  the  school, 
and  the  students  spoke  in  low  tones  but  sufficiently  loud  to 
be  heard  by  a  small,  compact  group,  the  three  recitations  pro- 
ceeding simultaneously  produced  no  confusion.  The  teacher 
divided  his  time  between  the  sections  as  he  thought  best. 
Sometimes  he  simply  looked  on ;  sometimes  he  made  sug- 
gestions ;  sometimes  he  took  full  charge  of  a  section  for  as 
long  as  he  saw  fit. 

Stimulated  intense  study  of  difficulties  by  groups.  —  This 
scheme  had  many  educational  advantages  apart  from  its  vari- 
ation of  the  pace  to  suit  the  capacities  of  the  three  types  of 
students.  The  chief  of  the  advantages  was  the  intense  geo- 
metrical thinking  done  by  the  members  of  each  section  when 
it  was  working  out  puzzling  points  in  propositions  or  exer- 
cises. The  sections  being  fairly  homogeneous,  a  serious  dif- 
ficulty for  one  member  of  a  given  section  would  be  likely 
to  be  a  difficulty  for  all  its  members.  Hence  it  would  be 
worth  while  for  the  group  to  work  it  out.  This  condition 
contrasts  very  strongly  with  that  presented  in  recitations 
conducted  for  the  whole  class.  In  the  latter  case,  difficulties 
which  would  puzzle  the  slow  students  for  fifteen  minutes 
might  not  be  difficulties  at  all  for  the  bright  pupils.  The 
teacher  either  has  to  let  the  bright  pupils  tell  the  solution, 
thus  depriving  the  slow  ones  of  participation  in  the  activity 
of  finding  it,  or  he  has  to  call  on  the  slow  ones  to  work  it 
out,  allowing  the  fast  ones  to  mark  time  meanwhile. 


384  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Another  advantage  of  these  sectional  recitations  is  the 
fact  that  each  student  gets  an  opportunity  each  day  to  re- 
cite at  some  length  to  an  audience  that  is  usually  atten- 
tive and  critical. 

Only  skilled  teacher  can  use  method  successfully.  —  Need- 
less to  say,  an  unskilled  teacher  in  a  school  where  there  was 
no  well-defined  spirit  of  work  and  serious  behavior  would 
have  difficulty  in  administering  this  monitorial  sectional 
method  in  geometry,  but  a  skilled  teacher  in  whose  class- 
room the  spirit  of  serious  work  and  application  always  pre- 
vailed could  probably  secure  better  educational  results  by 
some  modification  of  this  system  than  by  any  other.  It  could 
easily  be  adapted  to  use  in  other  mathematics  classes,  such  as 
those  in  algebra  and  trigonometry.  It  could  probably  be  used 
to  advantage  in  any  subject  where  there  is  a  large  amount  of 
fairly  routinized  practice  in  studying  and  mastering  material 
in  textbooks  —  for  example,  in  Latin  translation.  In  all  such 
cases  the  teacher  must  be  more  interested  in  the  process  of 
thoughtful  study  and  mastery  of  the  material  by  the  students 
than  in  covering  a  given  amount  of  ground. 

3.  Recitations  only  for  students  who  need  them;  seat 
work  for  others.  —  Both  of  the  methods  described  so  far 
(namely,  the  Pueblo  scheme  of  individual  instruction  or 
progress  and  the  monitorial  sectional  plan)  provide  for  dif- 
ferent rates  of  advancement  by  different  students  throughout 
the  course.  The  scheme  now  to  be  described  holds  the 
class  together  as  far  as  progress  through  the  essential  steps 
of  the  subject  is  concerned,  but  enables  the  brighter  pupils 
to  do  more  intensive  work  at  each  step  and  saves  their  time 
by  excusing  them  from  paying  attention  during  some  of  the 
recitations. 

Time  wasted  by  bright  students  in  algebra  recitations.  — 
The  desirability  of  such  a  method  is  illustrated  from  one 
period  in  my  own  experience,  when  I  taught  algebra  very 
unskillfully  in  high  school,  using  the  ordinary  method  of 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  385 

conducting  recitations  upon  material  that  had  been  studied 
at  home  the  night  before.  My  younger  brother  was  in  one 
class,  and,  being  a  bright,  conscientious  student,  he  mastered 
at  home  every  evening,  without  assistance,  the  lesson  for  the 
next  day.  Consequently,  when  he  came  to  class,  there  was 
practically  nothing  for  him  to  do  but  sit  as  a  spectator,  except 
when  he  was  given  an  opportunity  to  contribute.  I  recall  two 
other  students  in  the  same  class  that  were  the  only  ones  who 
caused  me  any  concern  about  discipline.  They  also  were 
bright  pupils  who  had  got  all  the  meat  out  of  the  set  of 
problems  under  discussion,  but  instead  of  sitting  as  polite 
spectators  they  insisted  on  devising  ingenious  pranks  that 
amused  me  so  much  that  I  was  always  at  a  loss  to  know  what 
to  do.  Unfortunately  it  did  n't  occur  to  me  to  excuse  them 
from  participation  in  the  recitation  and  to  devise  assignments 
of  extra  problems  that  would  interest  them  and  serve  as  an 
outlet  for  their  ingenious  energy. 

Three  factors  in  scheme  for  special  seat  work.  —  Such  a 
scheme  for  saving  time  and  for  proportioning  to  their  capaci- 
ties the  amount  of  work  expected  of  individual  pupils  is  often 
used  by  skilled  teachers  who  have  mastered  the  ordinary 
routine  of  handling  classes  and  are  interested  in  devising 
and  organizing  varied  assignments.  When  skillfully  admin- 
istered, the  scheme  involves  at  least  three  features ;  namely, 
(i)  the  minimum  essentials  of  the  subject  to  be  covered  by 
the  slow  students ;  (2)  supplementary  assignments  for  the 
bright  pupils ;  (3)  arrangements  to  conduct  recitations  only 
for  those  who  need  them. 

I .  Standardised  minimum  essentials  for  the  slow.  —  The 
idea  of  standardizing  quite  definitely  the  minimum  essentials 
in  elementary  and  high-school  studies  has  only  recently  been 
generally  applied.  The  importance  of  the  practice  can  readily 
be  appreciated  when  one  considers,  for  example,  what  a  very 
small  part  of  grammar-grade  arithmetic  is  necessary  for  the 
student  who  is  lacking  in  mathematical  capacity  and  who,  as 


386  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

a  consequence,  would  not  secure  a  position  in  life  as  an  ac- 
countant. For  such  a  student,  only  the  bare  essentials  of  the 
subject  should  suffice  to  give  him  a  passing  grade.  The  same 
principle  applies  to  most  high-school  subjects,  and  its  applica- 
tion is  readily  illustrated  by  the  topic  of  factoring  in  algebra, 
which  has  already  been  discussed  from  this  point  of  view 
on  page  82. 

2.  Standardized,    mimeographed,    supplementary   assign- 
ments for  bright  pupils.  —  Supplementary  assignments  for 
the  brighter  students  should  be  just  as  definitely  routinized 
and  standardized  as  the  minimum  essentials  for  the  slow. 
Hence,  the  teacher  should  have,  very  definitely  outlined  on 
paper,  statements  of  supplementary  topics  or  problems,  with 
exact  references  to  material  to  be  used  in  studying,  means 
of  securing  the  material,  etc.    Sometimes  the  supplementary 
material  could  be  in  the  form  of  another  textbook  to  be 
bought  by  the  student  and  brought  to  class  regularly.  More 
commonly,  the  teacher  will  have  in  the  room  a  small  working 
collection  of  books  for  supplementary  assignments.     Such 
supplementary  collections  are  provided  by  the  school  author- 
ities for  every  room  in  well-equipped  elementary  schools  and 
should  also  be  provided  in  high  schools.     Sometimes  the 
student  could  be  sent  to  the  high-school  library.   The  main 
point  of  this  paragraph  is  that  all  the  supplementary  assign- 
ments should  be  definitely  planned,  and,  if  possible,  mimeo- 
graphed outlines  prepared  so  that  a  student's  assignment 
could  be  given  to  him  in  a  moment  by  brief  reference  to 
the  outline.    Much  of  this  assigning  could  be  done  while  the 
class  is  assembling.     In  some  cases  supplementary  assign- 
ments for  a  week  could  be  outlined  in  a  five-minute  con- 
ference with  the  student. 

3.  Excuse  individuals  to  work  at  desks  or  in  library  or 
laboratory.  —  If  the  classroom  is  of  ordinary  fair  size,  students 
who  are  excused  from  participation  in  the  recitation  can  work 
at  the  back  of  the  room  without  any  serious  loss  of  time.    If 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY 

the  teacher  establishes  the  right  general  spirit  of  work,  all 
students  will  form  such  habits  of  application  and  of  disregard 
•of  distracting  conditions  as  were  described  above  on  page  359. 
In  some  cases  students  who  are  excused  from  participation 
in  the  recitation  could  be  permitted  to  work  in  the  library  or 
in  a  laboratory  with  perfect  assurance  that  they  would  use 
their  time  seriously  and  profitably. 

Examples  of  successful  use  of  the  method. — A  description 
of  a  method  of  conducting  algebra  classes  along  lines  some- 
what similar  to  those  described  above  is  found  in  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "The  Laboratory  Method  in  Teaching  Mathematics," 
by  Hornbrook  (3).  I  have  seen  the  method  used  in  classes 
in  German  where  the  class  work  consisted  of  reading  or  trans- 
lating selections  that  had  been  studied  at  home.  In  each  class 
two  or  three  of  the  brighter  students  were  excused  two  periods 
a  week  on  the  average  and  given  long  reading  assignments 
in  other  German  books.  These  they  read  and  prepared  in 
the  form  of  epitomes  or  selected  narratives,  which  they  told 
in  German  to  the  class  from  time  to  time.  The  ordinary 
class  in  foreign  language,  when  conducted  by  the  transla- 
tion method,  furnishes  perhaps  the  best  argument  for  such 
variations  as  we  have  been  describing,  since  the  class  time 
is  very  ccmmonly  wasted  for  the  brighter  pupils  who  have 
prepared  their  translations  conscientiously  at  home  or  during 
study  periods. 

4.  Required  supervised  study  periods  supplementary  to 
recitation  periods :  the  Batavia  scheme.  —  Up  to  this  point 
in  the  chapter  we  have  considered  three  types  of  experiments 
in  varying  class  instruction  so  as  to  provide  for  individual 
differences  in  capacity ;  namely,  the  Pueblo  plan  of  indi- 
vidual instruction,  the  monitorial  sectional  plan,  and  the  plan 
of  providing  supplementary  assignments  for  the  brighter  stu- 
dents instead  of  requiring  them  to  participate  in  all  recita- 
tions. The  fourth  scheme  for  securing  individual  instruction 
does  so  by  having  regular  supervised  study  periods  for  all 


388  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

subjects  in  place  of  part  of  the  time  usually  given  to  recita- 
tions. During  these  periods  the  teacher  gives  attention  to 
the  progress  of  individual  students,  skillfully  aiding  the  slow 
ones  by  questions  or  suggestions,  and  providing  supplemen- 
tary assignments  for  the  rapid  workers.  This  is  known  as  the 
Batavia  plan,  owing  to  its  successful  use  and  propagation  by 
John  Kennedy,  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  Batavia,  New 
York.  From  the  standpoint  of  provisions  for  individual  dif- 
ferences it  varies  from  the  Pueblo  plan  in  that  the  class  pro- 
gresses as  a  whole.  It  could  be  combined  with  the  three-section 
monitorial  scheme  by  requiring  a  part  of  the  time  spent  by 
each  section  in  the  classroom*  to  be  devoted  to  supervised 
study.  If  administered  to  the  best  advantage,  it  should  in- 
clude the  plan  of  minimum  essentials  for  the  slow  students 
and  supplementary  assignments  for  the  bright  students  de- 
scribed on  pages  384-387.  Inasmuch  as  the  introduction 
of  required  periods  for  supervised  study  in  school  is  one  of 
the  most  important  reforms  demanded  at  the  present  time, 
and  as  the  proper  organization  of  such  supervised  study  in- 
volves a  special  technique,  we  shall  devote  a  special  chapter 
to  this  topic. 

In  addition  to  the  schemes  for  varying  class  instruction  so 
as  to  provide  for  individual  differences  in  capacity,  there  are 
numerous  administrative  arrangements  in  the  form  of  special 
schools  or  special  classes.  To  find  accounts  of  these  provi- 
sions, the  reader  should  examine  the  Proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional Edtication  Association  from  1909  to  the  present  time. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  adapting  instruction  to  individual 
differences. — This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  adapta- 
tion of  class  instruction  to  differences  in  capacity.  On  the  his- 
torical side  we  noted  that  individual  instruction  prevailed  for 
a  long  time  but  in  cities  was  almost  completely  displaced 
during  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  method  of  simultaneous 
class  instruction.  The  latter  method  involves  enormous  waste 
of  time  for  both  the  especially  slow  and  the  especially  bright 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CAPACITY  389 

students.  This  was  pointed  out  by  a  few  educational  leaders 
at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  little  sentiment  was 
aroused  in  favor  of  adequate  variations  in  instruction  to  suit 
varying  capacities  until  statistical  proof  of  the  differences  in 
capacity  and  the  amount  of  waste  in  the  ordinary  class  was 
presented  by  Thorndike  and  others.  There  is  now  a  general 
interest  in  avoiding  this  waste,  and  various  types  of  schemes 
to  combine  class  instruction  with  variations  to  meet  the  needs 
of  individuals  are  being  tried.  Three  of  these  were  discussed 
in  this  chapter,  and  another,  namely,  supervised  study,  will 
be  described  in  the  next  chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General  and  practical  discussions,  i.  HARRIS,  W.  T.  The  Early 
Withdrawal  of  Pupils  from  Schools.  In  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  1872,  pp.  266-269. 

2.  HOLMES,  W.  H.    School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child. 
(The  David  Press,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1912.)   The  best  summary  of  all 
phases  of  the  subject. 

3.  HORNBROOK.     The  Laboratory   Method  in    Teaching  Mathe- 
matics.  (American  Book  Company.) 

4.  MARK,  H.  T.    Individuality  and  the  Moral  Aim  in  American 
Education.   (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1901.)    Good  general  discussion 
of  American  practices. 

5.  SEARCH,  P.  W.  An  Ideal  School.  (D.  Appleton  and  Company, 
1901.)  Advocates  almost  pure  individual  instruction.  Best  discussion  of 
Pueblo  plan.    See  pp.  28-37  and  158-176. 

6.  SEARCH,  P.  W.    Individual  Teaching :  the  Pueblo  Plan.    Educa- 
tional Review,  February,  1894,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  154-170. 

7.  SIDERS,  W.  R.    In  Class  Instruction  how  can  the  Individual  be 
Reached.     In  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
1909,  pp.  175-182.    Excellent  practical  article. 

8.  SWIFT,  E.  J.    Mind  in  the  Making.    (Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
1908.)    Pp.  253-255.    Reports  repetition  of  Pueblo  plan  with  favorable 
results. 

9.  THORNDIKE,   E.  L.     Individuality.    (Houghton   Mifflin  Com- 
pany, 191  r.)   Brief  popular  statement  of  influence  of  original  nature  in 
determining  individuality. 


390  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

10.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seller,  1906.) 
Pp.  68-104.  The  best  single  chapter  on  individual  differences. 

Statistical  discussions,  n.  AYERS,  L.  P.  Laggards  in  Our 
Schools.  (The  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1909.)  Standard  monograph 
on  retarded  pupils. 

1 2.  COURTIS,  S.  A.    Standard  Tests  in  English.  Elementary  School 
Teacher,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  374-392.    Incidental  material  on  range  of  indi- 
vidual differences  in  classes. 

13.  DEARBORN,  W.  F.    School  and  University  Grades.    Bulletin 
No.  368  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.    Standard  discussion  of  dis- 
tribution of  grades. 

14.  FOSTER,  W.  T.    Administration  of  the  College  Curriculum. 
(Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1911.)    Chapter  XIII  deals  with  the  dis- 
tribution of  grades. 

15.  TERMAN,  L.  M.  The  Intelligence  of  School  Children.  (Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1919.)    Scientific  diagnosis. 

1 6.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    Educational  Psychology.    (Teachers  Col- 
lege, 1914.)    Vol.  Ill,  pp.  142-388.    The  most  thorough  and  critical 
discussion  of  individual  differences. 

17.  SEASHORE,  C.  E.    The  Psychology  of  Musical  Talent.    (Silver, 
Burdett   and  Company,  1919.)     Simple  tests  for  diagnosing  musical 
talent.    See  also  Eighteenth  Year-Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education  (1919),  Part  II,  p.  1 1 1. 

1 8.  HENRY,  T.  S.    The  Education  of  Gifted  Children.    The  Nine- 
teenth Year-Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education 
(1920),  Part  II.   (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.) 

Additional  references  on  individual  differences  and  supervised 
study.  —  For  .important  additions  to  these  references,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  £197  and  £215,  and 
S.  C.  Parker's  General  Methods  of  Teaching  in  Elementary  Schools 
(Ginn  and  Company,  1919),  pp.  269-325.  See  also  the  Breed,  Clerk, 
and  Harris  references  added  below  on  pages  400  and  402. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  the  closely  related  topics,  "  Dif- 
ferences in  Capacity "  and  "  Supervised  Study,"  see  Exercises  for 
"  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E 1 90— E  215.  These  pages 
include  new  data  on  reading  rates  of  high-school  pupils,  problems  for 
graphing,  a  stenographic  report  of  a  supervised-study  lesson,  and  direc- 
tions for  a  special  term  paper  entitled,  "  I  shall  try  to  apply  the  following 
ideas  in  my  teaching." 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SUPERVISED  STUDY 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i.  The  supervision  of  poor  students 
who  are  studying  silently  at  their  desks  should  replace  part  of 
the  time  which  they  commonly  spend  in  recitations  and  home  study. 

2.  Poor  students  especially  fail  to  profit  under  the  system  of 
recitations  based  upon  home  study. 

3.  Precisely  measured,  experimental  investigations  show  that 
supervised  study  improves  the  work  of  poor  students. 

4.  Divided  periods,  part  for  recitation  and  part  for  supervised 
study,  should  be  arranged  as  regular  parts  of  the  daily  programs 
for  such  students  in  certain  high-school  subjects. 

5.  Conditions  favorable  to  study  are  those  favorable  to  concen- 
tration of  attention. 

a.  Physical  conditions  and  certain  routine  habits  may  be  easily 
improved. 

b.  Spontaneous  interest  and  concentrated  thinking  are  more 
difficult  to  secure  but  are  essential. 

6.  A  special  technique  of  supervising  study  should  be  mastered 
by  teachers.    It  should  include 

a.  Skill  in  determining  the  character  of  the  progress  being  made 
by  students  while  they  are  studying. 

b.  Skill  in  stimulating  and  aiding  this  progress  by  means  of 
questions  and  suggestions  without  assisting  too  much. 

Supervised  study  should  partially  replace  recitations  and 
home  study.  —  Organized  periods  for  supervised  study  of 
poor  pupils  should  replace  a  part  of  the  time  commonly 
spent  on  recitations  in  school  and  studying  at  home.  This 
reform  and  the  arrangements  for  adapting  instruction  to  dif- 
ferences in  capacity  are  two  of  the  reforms  most  needed  to  in- 
crease the  efficiency  of  classroom  instruction.  As  indicated 

391 


392  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

at  the  end  of  the  preceding  chapter,  the  two  reforms  are 
intimately  related,  since  supervised-study  periods  furnish  one 
of  the  best  opportunities  for  varying  assignments  and  giv- 
ing instruction  to  individual  pupils.  By  supervised  study, 
as  used  throughout  this  chapter,  is  meant  the  supervision  of 
individual  pupils  who  are  studying  silently  at  their  desks, 
not  the  supervision  of  a  discussion  by  the  class  of  a  new 
assignment,  which  in  recent  years  has  been  designated  as 
the  study  lesson. 

Three  elements  in  efficient  instructions:  varied  assign* 
ments,  supervised  study,  grotip  recitations. —  Historically  we 
have  interesting  developments  in  connection  with  studying, 
just  as  we  have  in  the  case  of  provisions  for  individual  in- 
struction. Originally  pupils  studied  individual  assignments, 
unsupervised,  at  their  desks,  and  recited  as  individuals  to 
the  teacher  at  his  desk.  This  system  was  replaced  by  the 
class  method,  in  which  the  students  studied  class  assign- 
ments, either  at  home  or  during  practically  unsupervised 
study  periods  in  school,  and  recited  afterwards  as  a  class. 
The  plan  proposed  here  includes  the  three  following  ele- 
ments :  (i)  Similar  assignments  (which  vary  in  intensive- 
ness)  to  all  members  of  the  same  class  or  section  of  a  class, 
thus  providing  for  some  uniformity  and  some  variation ; 
(2)  supervision  of  poor  pupils  of  the  group  which  is  study- 
ing, by  the  teacher  who  passes  around  the  room  giving  sug- 
gestions to  individuals  and  asking  each  one  such  questions  as 
may  seem  desirable  ;  (3)  group  recitations  either  of  the  class 
as  a  whole  or  in  sections.  This  chapter  is  concerned  only 
with  the  second  of  these  elements  ;  namely,  supervised  study. 

Strong  social  demands  to  substitute  supervised  study  for 
home  study.  —  Until  recently  the  almost  universal  practice 
in  American  high  schools  included  class  recitations  based 
upon  home  study  or  upon  infrequent,  almost  wholly  unsuper- 
vised study  periods.  For  some  time,  however,  vigorous  at- 
tacks have  been  made  on  the  home-study  part  of  this  practice, 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  393 

and  many  schools  are  now  operating  on  the  basis  of  regularly 
organized,  frequent,  carefully  supervised  study  periods  with 
little  or  no  home  study.  One  of  the  most  impressive  discus- 
sions of  this  situation  appeared  in  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal 
for  January,  1913.  The  article  included  letters  from  suc- 
cessful school  superintendents  and  principals  all  over  the 
country,  condemning  the  ordinary  practice  of  expecting  most 
students  to  get  their  lessons  at  home  without  assistance,  and 
giving  examples  of  reforms  that  had  been  successfully  carried 
out  in  various  places.  The  article  contained  an  editorial  sug- 
gestion to  parents  to  go  on  a  strike  and  refuse  to  have  any 
further  studying  done  at  home  by  their  children. 

One  contributor  reported  the  following  incident  which  bore 
the  headline,  "  The  widow  who  was  dead  right  "  • 

A  widow  came  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  with  the  follow- 
ing complaint :  "I  have  four  little  girls  attending  your  schools.  I 
am  up  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  get  them  off  to  school  and 
to  get  myself  off  to  work.  It  is  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  when  I 
reach  home  again,  pretty  well  worn  out,  and  after  we  have  had 
dinner  and  have  tidied  up  the  house  a  bit,  it  is  eight  o'clock.  Then, 
tired  as  I  am,  I  sit  down  and  teach  the  little  girls  the  lessons  your 
teachers  will  hear  them  say  over  on  the  following  day.  Now,  if  it 
is  all  the  same  to  you,  it  would  be  a  great  help  and  favor  to  me  if 
you  will  have  your  teachers  teach  the  lessons  during  the  day,  and 
then  all  I  would  have  to  do  at  night  would  be  to  hear  them  say 
them  over." 

Teachers  fail  to  appreciate  students'  difficulties  in  studying. 

—  Some  teachers  overlook  altogether  the  fact  that  many  stu- 
dents have  great  difficulty  in  mastering  their  lessons  unaided. 
This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  these  teachers  were  fairly 
bright  students  when  in  high  school ;  or  they  may  have  for- 
gotten their  own  difficulties  and  are  not  in  a  situation  where 
they  observe  mediocre  or  poor  students  studying  at  home. 
Even  quite  bright  students  sometimes  have  difficulties  in 
getting  their  lessons,  particularly  in  the  first  year  of  high 


394  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

school.  For  example,  the  honor  graduate  of  a  fairly  large 
high  school  reported  that  during  her  first  year  in  high  school 
she  nearly  always  sought  assistance  from  her  former  eighth- 
grade  teacher,  and  she  would  have  continued  to  do  so  later, 
but  the  lessons  were  too  difficult  for  the  teacher. 

Even  careful  assignments  do  not  always  aid  poor  students. 
—  The  general  situation  is  illustrated  further  by  Breslich, 
who  says  : 

It  is  true  that  the  better  tea'chers  give  careful  suggestions  with 
each  assignment  as  to  method  of  attack,  aim,  and  meaning  of  the 
assignment.  Usually  this  enables  the  better  pupil  to  do  the  work 
without  undue  difficulty,  but  it  does  not  help  the  slow  pupil  who 
fails  to  make  the  connection  between  the  assignment  and  the  sug- 
gestions given  by  the  teacher. 

That  in  beginning  classes  of  the  high  school  suggestions  given 
with  the  lesson  are  not  sufficient  to  enable  the  pupil  to  do  his  work, 
and  that  the  pupil's  difficulty  in  studying  his  lesson  is  much  greater 
than  is  usually  assumed,  is  illustrated  by  the  following  occurrence : 
The  parents  of  a  pupil  just  beginning  first-year  mathematics  in  the 
University  of  Chicago  High  School  complained  to  the  teacher  that 
the  daughter  came  home  day  after  day  with  home  work  assigned 
but  with  no  idea  how  to  do  it.  The  girl  had  told  them  it  was  the 
teacher's  custom  to  assign  problems  with  no  suggestions.  Feeling 
that  this  procedure  was  unreasonable,  the  parents  spent  the  evening 
hours  working  the  problems  and  explaining  them  to  the  child.  When 
they  were  unable  themselves  to  do  the  work,  they  called  on  a  minis- 
terial friend  living  in  the  next  block,  who  was  good  in  mathematics 
and  kind  enough  to  help.  Finally  the  parents  came  to  the  teacher 
and  complained :  "  Sometimes  even  all  of  us  cannot  do  the  work 
you  assign  ;  how  do  you  expect  her  to  do  it  alone  ?  "  The  teacher 
was  surprised  to  learn  that,  after  all  the  careful  preparation  in  the 
classroom,  a  pupil,  no  matter  how  slow,  should  not  even  know  that 
suggestions  were  given.  Asked  whether  any  suggestions  for  the 
next  day's  lesson  were  gfven,  the  girl  said  she  knew  of  none.  To 
satisfy  the  parents,  the  teacher  took  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  go 
over  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  with  the  parents  and  daughter 
exactly  as  had  been  done  in  the  classroom.  It  was  found  that  the 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  395 

girl  remembered  it  all  but  failed  to  see  how  it  would  help  her  to 
study  her  lesson.  It  was  now  the  parents'  turn  to  be  surprised. 
They  went  away  feeling  that  the  child,  not  the  teacher,  was  at 
fault.  But  this  experience  shows  clearly  that  the  teacher's  method 
of  instruction  did  not  accomplish  the  desired  results,  for  at  any 
rate  this  pupil  had  failed  to  make  the  connection  between  sugges- 
tions and  assignment.  (1 :  44-45  5  2  :  505) 

Home  environment  often  interferes  ^vith  studying.  —  If 
such  results  are  found  in  high-grade  homes,  with  plenty  of 
room  and  furniture,  good  light,  and  parents  who  have  suffi- 
cient leisure  and  interest  to  concern  themselves  about  the 
lessons  of  their  children,  it  is  obvious  that  worse  results  might 
be  expected  from  less  favored  homes  where  the  conditions 
for  studying  are  often  very  poor.  That  this  contrast  is  not 
a  matter  of  theory  but  is  an  actual  condition  is  shown  by  an 
investigation  made  by  W.  C.  Reavis  and  entitled  "  Factors 
that  Determine  the  Habits  of  Study  of  Grade  Pupils/' 
(8:  71-81.)  In  reporting  the  results  of  the  investigation 
the  author  says : 

The  investigation  covered  the  home  conditions  of  three  hundred 
and  ninety-three  children.  Data  about  these  homes  were  gathered 
and  graded  according  to  the  following  points :  Educational  interest 
on  the  part  of  the  parents ;  means  to  provide  adequate  food,  cloth- 
ing, medical  attention,  books,  papers,  magazines,  and  entertain- 
ment; moral  atmosphere  that  would  encourage  honesty,  earnest 
effort,  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  and  a  due  measure  of  self- 
respect.  The  homes  were  divided  into  three  equal  [groups]  and 
designated  as  ranks  I,  II,  and  III. 

The  pupils  also  were  classified,  from  the  standpoint  of 
habits  of  study,  into  three  grades,  or  qualities.  Then  the 
pupils  from  homes  of  different  ranks  were  compared  from  the 
standpoint  of  their  habits  of  study,  and  the  following  table 
was  secured.  The  percentages  are  calculated  on  the  vertical 
distribution,  hence  the  columns  should  be  read  vertically. 


396 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


I.  STUDENTS  FROM 

II.  STUDENTS  FROM 

III.  STUDENTS  FROM 

HOMES  OF  FIRST 

HOMES  OF  SECOND 

HOMES    OF    THIRD 

RANK 

RANK 

RANK 

Students  having  habits 

of  study  of  first,  or 

best,  quality 

75% 

32-4% 

^5-3% 

Students  having  habits 

of   study    of   second 

quality     

19-7% 

48.2% 

40-7% 

Students  having  habits 

of  study  of  third,  or 

poorest,  quality    .     . 

5-3% 

19-4% 

44% 

Total   

1  00% 

I  OO% 

1  00% 

This  table  shows  clearly  that  students  from  the  less  favored 
homes  have  the  poorer  habits  of  study.  Furthermore,  the  stu- 
dents from  the  less  favored  homes  tend  to  neglect  the  prepa- 
ration of  their  lessons  at  home  more  than  do  those  from  the 
better  class  of  homes,  as  shown  by  Reavis  in  the  following 
table.  The  percentages  are  calculated  on  the  horizontal  dis- 
tribution, hence  the  columns  should  be  read  horizontally. 


I.    FROM    HOMES 
OF  FIRST  RANK 

II.     FROM    HOMES 
OF  SECOND  RANK 

III.     FROM   HOMES 
OF  THIRD  RANK 

Distribution  of  students 
doing  assigned  home 
study  

r»8.*3£ 

^4.2% 

7.  -3% 

Distribution  of  students 
not  doing  assigned 
home  study 

4-i% 

43-8% 

52-1% 

Discursive  influences  even  in  favored  homes.  —  Even 
when  the  home  environments  are  of  fairly  good  grade,  and 
the  students  able  to  master  the  lessons  unaided,  the  activity 
of  studying  must  compete  with  many  other  tendencies  and 
with  distractions  that  result  in  divided  attention  and  conse- 
quent waste  of  time  and  energy. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  397 

The  conditions  for  home  study  present  all  the  possible  varia- 
tions, but  most  home  study  must  be  done  under  discursive  influ- 
ences— a  little  study,  a  little  conversation  about  irrelevant  matter, 
an  intermittent  discontinuance  for  small  household  duties,  a  pro- 
longed intermission  for  recreation,  with  the  half-consciousness  of 
wrongdoing  because  of  unfinished  and  overhanging  lessons,  even 
interrupted  sleep  because  of  a  number  of  unfinished  tasks,  a  final 
effort  to  secure  categorically  such  facts  regarding  the  assignment 
as  are  essential  to  enable  the  pupil  to  meet  the  teacher,  a  con- 
sciousness of  incompleteness  of  preparation  and  a  hope  that,  if 
called  upon  at  all,  the  call  may  come  for  the  facts  that  are  in  the 
pupil's  meager  store.  (3  :  245) 

Measured  results  show  influence  of  supervised  study.  - 
To  determine  by  exact  measurement  the  relative  efficiency 
of  the  home-study  system  and  supervised  study  in  school, 
Breslich  conducted  an  experiment  in  teaching  algebra  to  two 
parallel  classes  of  approximately  equal  ability.  In  one  class 
he  abolished  home  study  altogether  but  used  part  of  the  reci- 
tation period  for  supervised  study.  The  other  class  had  home 
study  and  used  the  class  period  for  ordinary  recitation  pur- 
poses. The  classes  may  be  distinguished  by  designating  the 
former  as  the  supervised-study  class  and  the  latter  as  the 
home-study  class.  The  supervised-study  class  spent  only 
the  regular  class  period  upon  each  lesson,  namely,  forty-five 
minutes ;  it  had  no  outside  study.  The  home-study  class 
spent  on  the  average  two  hours,  or  one  hundred  and  twenty 
minutes,  on  each  lesson.  This  was  composed  of  forty-five 
minutes  of  class  recitation  and  an  average  of  seventy-five  min- 
utes of  home  study.  Thus  the  home-study  class  devoted  on 
the  average  two  and  one  half  times  as  much  time  to  each 
lesson  as  the  supervised-study  class  did.  In  spite  of  this 
enormous  difference  in  the  amount  of  time  spent  by  the 
two  classes,  the  supervised-study  class  averaged  as  well  in 
the  examination  on  the  chapter  covered  in  the  experiment 
as  did  the  home-study  class. 


398 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


The  details  of  Breslich's  experiment,  as  well  as  the  accom- 
panying discussion,  should  be  studied  by  all  readers  in  the 
School  Review  for  October,  1912.  The  following  additional 
points  may  be  given  here.  The  equal  ability  of  the  two 
classes  was  shown  by  their  grades  in  the  examination  at  the 
end  of  the  preceding  semester.  The  average  of  these  grades 
for  the  supervised-study  class  was  79.4  ;  for  the  home-study 
class  it  was  81.4;  and  the  distribution  of  A's,  B's,  etc.  was 
approximately  the  same.  The  experiment  included  fourteen 
lessons  on  the  chapter  on  simultaneous  linear  equations.  The 
grades  made  in  the  examination  on  the  chapter  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 


A 

B 

c 

D 

F 

AVERAGE 

Supervised-study  section.  No 
home  work  

0% 

6.2% 

-tf.tflo 

2C<% 

11.2% 

6n% 

Home-work  section.  No  su- 
pervised study  .... 

i  i°f 
/•1/o 

21.4% 

21.4% 

0% 

50% 

62.8% 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  although  slightly  inferior  accord- 
ing to  the  preceding  semester  averages,  the  supervised-study 
class  was  able  to  do  slightly  better  on  the  average  in  the  ex- 
periment than  did  the  home-study  class  which  put  in  two  and 
one  half  times  as  much  time. 

Poor  students  profit  from  supervised  study,  good  students 
from  home  study.  —  Although  the  supervised-study  class  did 
as  well  on  the  average,  nevertheless  the  brighter  students 
in  the  home-study  class  did  much  better  than  the  brighter 
students  in  the  supervised-study  class.  This  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  only  6.2  per  cent  of  A's  and  B's  were  made  by 
the  students  in  the  supervised-study  class  as  compared  with 
28.5  per  cent  of  A's  and  B's  made  by  the  student's  in  the 
home-study  class.  These  facts  show  that  the  capable  students 
profited  from  unsupervised  study  and,  as  a  result  of  the  added 
time  spent  in  home  study,  mastered  more  thoroughly  the  type 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  399 

of  problems  that  were  being  studied.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fact  that  the  averages  of  the  two  classes  were  practically  the 
same  in  the  experiment  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  50  per 
cent  of  the  home-study  class  received  below  D,  while  only 
31.2  per  cent  of  the  supervised  study  class  received  below  D. 
This  shows  either  that  poor  students  profit  very  little  by  unsu- 
pervised  study  or  that  they  neglect  to  do  their  home  study. 
Probably  both  factors  enter  in. 

Poor  students  often  fail  to  do  home  stitdy.  —  Some  light 
is  thrown  on  the  influence  of  these  two  factors  by  the  figures 
given  by  Reavis  for  a  first-year  Latin  class.  (7  :  398-405.) 
In  its  habits  of  study  this  class  would  be  quite  similar  to 
Breslich's  classes.  Reavis  secured  statements  showing  the 
average  amount  of  time  spent  in  home  study  by  each  student, 
and  compared  these  with  the  term  grades  of  the  students  in 
Latin.  The  grading  system  in  use  included  the  letters  A+, 
A,  B+,  B,  C+,  C,  and  X.  C  meant  "  conditioned  "  and  X 
meant  "  failure."  The  following  chart  shows  the  relation 
between  the  amount  of  home  study  and  rank  in  this  class. 

CHART  SHOWING  GRADES  MADE  BY  STUDENTS  WHO  SPENT  VARIOUS 
AMOUNTS  OF  TIME  ON  HOME  STUDY 

X 

X      C 

X      C+  B      C+ 
X      C+  B      B 
X      C+  B      B  + 
C      B      B+  A      C 
C+  B+  B+  A      C 
A      B+  A      A+  B 
A+  A+  A+  A+  B  + 
A+  A+  A+  A+  B+  C+ 
Hours  spent  on  home  study  o       \       i       \\      2      2} 

The  first  column  shows  the  term  grades  of  the  students 
who  put  in  no  time  on  home  study.  It  may  be  read  as  follows : 
Of  the  ten  students  who  put  in  no  time  on  home  study  five 


400  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

were  failures  (grade  =  X),  one  was  conditioned  (grade  =  C), 
one  barely  passed  (grade  =  C  + ),  and  three  made  excellent 
records  (grades  =  A  -f  and  A),  but  according  to  Reavis  these 
three  were  repeating  the  course.  These  facts  suggest  that 
the  large  number  of  failures  in  Breslich's  home-study  class 
was  partly  due  to  the  lack  of  study.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
right-hand  side  of  Reavis's  table  shows  that  students  may 
put  in  considerable  time  on  home  study  and  still  do  poor 
work ;  for  example,  the  one  student  who  put  in  two  and  a 
half  hours  barely  passed  (grade  =  C  + ),  and  two  students 
who  put  in  two  hours  were  conditioned  (grade  =  C). 

Elaborate  investigation  in  fourteen  high  schools.  —  The 
most  elaborate  experimental  investigation  of  the  influence 
of  supervised  study  upon  the  attainments  of  pupils  was 
reported  by  F.  S.  Breed  in  the  School  Review  for  March 
and  April,  1919,  Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  186-204  and  262-284. 
Results  from  thirty-four  classes  in  three  subjects  (algebra, 
Latin,  and  English)  were  compared  for  (i)  work  conducted 
under  the  divided-period  plan  with  supervised  study,  and 
(2)  work  done  without  supervised  study.  As  in  the  case 
of  Breslich's  experiment,  measurements  showed  that  the 
progress  of  the  poor  pupils  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the 
supervised  study,  but  that  the  progress  of  the  better  pupils 
seemed  to  be  retarded  by  the  type  of  supervised  study 
which  prevailed  in  the  experiment. 

Although  further  measurements  are  needed  to  determine 
the  exact  nature  of  the  influence  of  supervised  study,  the 
results  to  date  indicate  that  in  the  case  of  the  poor  students 
better  results  are  achieved  by  a  combination  of  supervised  study 
and  recitations  than  by  the  common  system  of  recitations  based 
on  unsupervised  study  at  home  or  in  school. 

Introduce  supervised  study  gradually  in  order  to  master 
its  technique.  —  Supervised  study  has  been  introduced  into 
high  schools  in  varying  degrees.  As  a  mild  beginning, 
study  periods  after  school  hours  are  sometimes  offered  by 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  401 

conscientious  teachers,  and  attendance  invited  but  not  re- 
quired. Such  a  period  usually  does  good  as  far  as  it  reaches 
the  pupils.  Sometimes  it  is  made  more  influential  by  requir- 
ing those  students  to  attend  who  are  falling  behind  in  their 
lessons  or  making  poor  records.  Sometimes  one  regular 
period  a  week  in  each  subject  is  made  a  supervised-study 
period.  All  of  these  are  steps  in  the  right  direction  and 
probably  constitute  the  best  method  of  introducing  supervised 
study  in  order  that  teachers  may  gradually  learn  something 
about  its  possibilities  and  the  technique  of  conducting  it,  for 
a  special  technique  is  needed  and  will  be  discussed  later  in 
the  chapter. 

Best  form  is  the  Batavia  plan  of  required  periods. — After 
some  preliminary  experimenting  has  been  carried  out  in  any 
system  or  school  with  supervised  study,  however,  it  should 
be  used  for  all  poor  pupils,  and  the  best  way  of  doing 
this  in  high  school  is  to  adopt  some  modified  form  of  the 
Batavia  plan.  As  noted  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  essen- 
tial idea  in  the  Batavia  scheme  is  the  placing  of  a  number  of 
required  supervised-study  periods  in  the  daily  program  and 
requiring  the  teacher  to  use  them  for  directing  pupils  who 
are  studying  silently  at  their  desks.  This  scheme  was  organ- 
ized by  Superintendent  J.  Kennedy  in  Batavia,  New  York, 
about  1898.  At  first  it  was  simply  a  device  to  enable  the 
school  system  to  use  some  very  large  rooms  in  certain  ele- 
mentary schools  by  filling  them  with  children  and  putting 
two  teachers  in  a  room,  one  to  hear  recitations  and  the  other 
to  supervise  the  children  who  were  studying.  The  results 
were  so  gratifying  in  bringing  the  backward  children  up  to 
grade  and  almost  entirely  eliminating  failures  that  the  plan 
was  extended  to  apply  to  rooms  that  had  only  one  teacher. 
This  was  accomplished  simply  by  making  supervised  study  a 
regular  part  of  the  daily  program.  In  the  Elementary  School 
Teacher  for  June,  1912,  Mr.  Kennedy  describes  the  very 
favorable  results  of  fourteen  years'  experience  with  the  plan. 


402  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Divided  periods  provide  for  required  supervised  study  in 
high  schools.  —  A  simple  way  of  adapting  the  Batavia  plan 
to  high-school  instruction  is  to  introduce  divided  periods  and 
require  every  teacher  in  the  subjects  in  which  recitations  are 
ordinarily  conducted  to  use  a  certain  part  of  each  period  for 
supervised  study.  It  is  necessary  to  make  this  a  requirement, 
because  many  teachers  will  use  the  whole  period  for  recitation 
purposes  unless  the  supervised  study  is  required. 

How  secttre  supervised  study  merely  for  slow  pupils  f  — 
However,  if  supervised  study  is  helpful  only  for  poor  pupils 
(as  suggested  by  investigations  described  above),  it  would 
seem  that  these  pupils  ought  to  be  segregated  for  such 
work  in  order  to  avoid  retarding  the  brighter  ones.  Breed 
specifically  suggests  "  some  selective  or  differential  plan  of 
study  supervision  "  for  this  purpose.  An  elaborate  descrip- 
tive, statistical,  and  argumentative  account  of  an  actual  experi- 
ment in  placing  bright,  mediocre,  and  slow  pupils  in  separate 
classes  is  described  by  F.  E.  Clerk,  in  the  School  Review  for 
January,  1917,  Vol.  XXV,  pp.  26-47.  The  experience  of  The 
University  of  Chicago  High  School  with  supervised  study  is 
described  by  G.  L.  Harris  in  the  School  Review  for  September, 
1918,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  490-5 10.  This  school  now  (1920)  has 
some  rapidly  advancing  sections  of  bright  pupils  with  special 
arrangements  for  supervised  study  of  the  slow  ones. 

Special  technique  of  supervising  study.  Avoid  extremes  of 
too  much  assistance  and  of  vagtie  exhortation.  —  As  stated 
above,  a  special  technique  of  supervising  study  needs  to  be 
understood  and  used  by  teachers  if  the  results  are  to  be  satis- 
factory. The  chief  danger  to  be  avoided  is  that  of  assisting 
pupils  too  much,  thus  doing  their  work  for  them  instead  of 
arranging  conditions  so  that  they  will  do  it.  At  the  opposite 
extreme  is  the  tendency  to  talk  learnedly  about  concentration 
of  attention,  and  to  expect  to  secure  this  desirable  condition  on 
the  part  of  the  students  by  demanding  it  of  them.  But,  as  we 
noted  above  (page  342),  the  endeavor  to  secure  concentration 


SUPERVISED  STUDY 


403 


by  a  mere  "  heave  of  the  will  "  is  relatively  ineffective,  since, 
at  the  outset,  it  usually  establishes  merely  a  condition  of 
divided  attention  that  is  relatively  unfavorable  to  studying. 
What  is  needed  is  a  clear  understanding  of  the  conditions 
upon  which  favorable  attitudes  of  concentration  of  attention 
depend,  and  intelligent  endeavor  by  teachers  to  establish 
these  conditions.  Hence,  in  taking  up  the  discussion  of  the 


PUPIL'S  STUDY  PROGRAM 


HOUR 

STUDY 

RECITE 

9.00 

9-45 

10.30 

II.  IO 

'•IS 

2.OO 

2-45 

3.20 

(Over) 

technique  of  supervised  study  we  shall  relate  it  to  the  con- 
ditions determining  the  concentration  of  attention. 

Physical  conditions  should  suggest  study.  A  study-program 
card  improves  studying.  —  The  influence  of  physical  condi- 
tions in  determining  concentration  of  attention  is  the  first 
point  that  we  shall  consider.  By  physical  conditions  we  mean 
all  kinds  of  routine  mechanical  arrangements  that  can  be  made 
in  order  to  put  students  in  a  situation  in  which  all  of  the 
suggestions  are  in  the  direction  of  concentration  of  attention 
along  the  desired  lines.  The  grade  teacher's  orders  to  "  put 


404  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

everything  away  "  is  the  most  obvious  endeavor  to  eliminate 
conditions  which  suggest  attention  in  undesirable  directions. 
In  general,  the  suggestions  of  the  physical  situation  in  school 
ought  to  be  much  more  favorable  to  study  than  those  of  the 
home  situation.  The  suggestions  of  the  school  situation  can 
be  greatly  strengthened,  however,  if  the  teacher  makes  it  a 
point  to  do  so.  This  is  illustrated  by  Reavis's  experiment 
with  cards  upon  which  each  student  made  out  a  definite 
program  of  study  for  the  term.  The  form  of  one  side  of  the 
•card  is  shown  on  page  403.  (7 :  400.)  The  student  indicated 
the  subject  that  he  was  to  study  at  each  period  that  he  was 
in  the  study  room.  "  Duplicate  copies  were  placed  on  file 
in  the  assembly-room  desk,  so  that  the  teacher  in  charge 
could  closely  supervise  the  work."  Reavis  records  the  influ- 
ence of  the  study-program  card  in  the  following  statement : 

During  the  two  and  a  half  years  that  study  has  been  closely 
-supervised  and  regular  programs  for  each  pupil  strictly  followed, 
three  things  have  been  accomplished  with  more  or  less  success : 
•(i)  the  problem  of  discipline  has  been  practically  solved ;  (2)  con- 
siderable improvement  has  been  made  in  scholarship ;  (3)  regular 
hours  of  home  study  have  been  provided  for  by  the  large  majority 
-of  the  students.  (7 :  399) 

Reavis  gives  measured  evidence  for  these  statements.  To 
be  sure,  these  results  are  only  partially  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  card  as  an  improvement  in  the  physical  situation,  but 
its  influence  in  this  way  is  very  important.  That  is,  once  the 
program  card  is  made  out,  it  becomes  just  as  much  a  part  of 
the  physical  situation  as  the  clock  or  the  bell  or  the  teacher, 
.and  it  operates  more  or  less  mechanically  as  a  source  of 
suggestions  for  concentrating  attention. 

Students  testify  to  influence  of  card  in  improving  study.  — 
As  evidence  of  the  value  of  the  study  cards  Reavis  gives  the 
following  testimony  from  students  who  used  them  for  two  and 
;a  half  years. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  405 

1.  By  following  a  definite  program  of  study  I  have  formed  the 
habit  of  studying  a  certain  lesson  at  a  certain  time,  and  because  I 
know  that  I  must  study  at  that  time  I  am  always  ready. 

2.  If  a  definite  program  is  followed,  I  can  do  more  and  better 
work  than  if  I  study  in  a  haphazard  fashion. 

3.  When  following  a  study  program  one  is  never  in  doubt  about 
what  to  do  next. 

4.  A  study  program  keeps  me  from  spending  too  much  time 
on  favorite  subjects. 

5.  By  following  a  regular  program  I  waste  no  time  in  thinking 
about  what  I  shall  do  next.    Then,  too,  it  keeps  me  from  changing 
tasks  when  I  begin  to  tire  of  what  I  am  doing. 

6.  By  preparing  my  work  regularly  I  find  that  I  not  only  have 
better  lessons  but  also  have  more  time  for  leisure. 

7.  The  study  program  has  proved  so  beneficial  to  me  in  the 
preparation  of  my  lessons  that  I  now  follow  a  regular  program  for 
all  of  my  work. 

8.  I  find  that  by  following  a  regular  program  of  study  I  always 
study  each  lesson,  whether  I  accomplish  anything  or  not.    At  least 
I  always  know  something  about  each  lesson. 

9.  I  had  the  habit  of  always  putting  off  my  work  until  I  felt  just 
right  for  study,  and  as  a  result  made  very  poor  grades,  but  since 
I  have  adopted  a  regular  study  program  my  interest  in  my  work 
has  greatly  increased  and  I  am  no  longer  ashamed  of  my  grades. 
(7:  404-405) 

Thus  we  see  that  a  study  program  may  be  one  of  the  most 
important  aspects  of  the  physical  situation,  serving  as  a  source 
of  suggestions  for  the  concentration  of  attention  in  the  right 
direction  at  stated  periods. 

Form  habits  of  going  through  the  motions  of  studying.  — 
A  second  general  class  of  conditions  determining  concentra- 
tion of  attention  includes  certain  more  or  less  mechanical 
habitual  processes  which  the  student  may  develop.  They 
involve  "  going  through  the  motions  "  of  giving  attention  or 
getting  ready  to  give  attention.  An  example  has  already  been 
given  (on  page  358)  of  the  way  students  settle  down  to  work 


406  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

under  different  teachers.  Improvements  in  habits  of  study 
may  be  made  along  this  line.  The  need  of  them  is  shown 
by  Breslich's  statement  of  the  conditions  observed  at  one 
stage  of  his  investigation  after  the  experience  with  the  girl 
who  didn't  understand  suggestions,  as  described  on  page  394. 
Breslich  says  : 

To  ascertain  to  what  extent  the  other  members  of  the  class 
might  have  this  difficulty,  the  following  experiment  was  tried :  In 
assigning  the  next  lesson,  suggestions  were  given  with  unusual  care. 
The  pupils  were  then  told  that  the  next  fifteen  minutes  would  be 
given  to  studying  the  lesson,  and  that  they  should  begin  the  assigned 
home  work  immediately.  The  experiment  showed  at  once  that  the 
pupils  did  not  appreciate  the  value  of  limited  time,  for  all  were  slow 
in  beginning  work.  It  took  some  of  them  the  whole  fifteen  minutes 
to  go  through  the  technique  of  getting  started.  Several  evidently 
were  not  in  the  habit  of  working  alone,  for  they  looked  about  help- 
lessly and  simply  imitated  the  others.  However,  these  same  pupils 
had  come  to  the  classroom  daily  with  the  lessons  well  prepared. 
Very  little  was  accomplished  in  the  fifteen  minutes,  indicating  that 
the  pupils  very  probably  wasted  much  time  in  studying  their  assign- 
ments of  home  work.  Although  the  class  had  been  in  the  high 
school  only  a  short  time,  the  teacher  had  been  presupposing  a  habit 
of  study  which  did  not  exist.  Much  of  the  difficulty  is  due  to  lack 
of  knowledge  as  to  how  to  study  and  how  to  use  time  to  advan- 
tage. The  remedy  in  this  case  is,  of  course,  definite  instruction  as 
to  methods  of  study.  (1 :  45,  2  :  506) 

Example  of  an  individual  making  his  own  surroundings 
favorable.  —  Students  can  easily  be  trained  to  go  through 
the  motions  of  getting  ready  to  study.  Either  in  school  or 
at  home  they  can  be  taught  to  apply  the  idea  of  putting  dis- 
tracting objects  out  of  sight  and  arranging  materials  for  the 
present  task.  This  habit  in  the  student  corresponds  to  the 
teacher's  activity  in  arranging  the  physical  situation.  Many 
adults  apply  this  principle  of  "  going  through  the  motions  " 
by  arranging  favorable  physical  situations  in  their  own  work. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  407 

Thus,  when  I  was  "  cleaning,"  much  of  my  work  was  carried 
on  under  conditions  that  involved  rapid  shifting  of  attention  ; 
for  example,  during  a  conference  with  a  student  I  often  had 
to  answer  the  telephone  two  or  three  times,  give  directions 
to  clerks  who  came  in  with  questions,  and  perhaps  make 
memoranda  on  another  case  which  flitted  through  my  mind 
while  the  student  was  trying  to  choose  between  certain  alter- 
natives which  we  had  been  discussing.  Obviously,  such  a 
situation  was  not  favorable  to  prolonged  economical  attention 
to  one  matter ;  hence,  if  I  had  some  long  statistical  calcula- 
tions to  make,  or  wa&  puzzling  out  the  organization  of  the 
work  in  a  department,  or  working  out  the  program  for  a  faculty 
meeting,  I  always  went  to  another  room  and  used  a  desk  on 
which  there  was  no  other  work  of  my  own  and  where  I  would 
probably  not  be  approached  about  other  matters.  Similarly,  at 
home  my  regular  desk  is  piled  with  distracting  material  related 
to  the  teaching  of  my  classes.  Consequently,  when  I  want  to 
write  on  a  chapter  or  article  with  greatest  economy  of  atten- 
tion, I  commonly  use  the  dining-room  table  or  any  other  table 
that  I  can  get.  Upon  it  are  piled  only  materials  that  are  con- 
ducive to  attention  to  the  work  in  hand.  Moreover,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  acquire  ideas  or  habits  of  arranging  these  in  detail  so 
as  to  make  for  economy  in  attention.  For  example,  sources 
that  are  to  be  consulted  may  be  piled  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  to  be  used ;  a  used  page  of  the  outline  which  is 
being  followed  may  be  put  at  the  bottom  of  the  pile  of  out- 
line pages ;  finished  pages  of  the  manuscript  may  be  piled 
so  that  they  will  be  in  order  (this  usually  involves  putting 
them  face  downward  but  placing  the  last  finished  sheet  so 
that  it  can  be  referred  back  to  at  a  glance). 

Outlining  is  a  useful  form  of  going  through  the  motions. 
—  The  practice  of  making  an  outline  on  paper  is  another 
habit  of  going  through  the  motions  that  helps  in  securing 
attention  in  studying.  For  example,  in  beginning  this  chapter 
about  half  past  seven  one  evening  I  was  possessed  with  the 


408  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

idea  of  going  to  a  neighboring  minstrel  show.  I  couldn't 
get  the  thoughts  of  the  singing  and  eccentric  dancing  .perma- 
nently out  of  my  mind.  But  I  also  wanted  to  get  to  work  on 
the  chapter.  So,  at  a  favorable  moment,  when  the  thought 
"  write  the  chapter  "  was  dominant,  I  started  to  make  the 
appropriate  motions  by  jotting  down  some  headings  in  the 
outline.  The  thought  "  go  to  the  show  "  kept  coming  back, 
but  the  outlining  motions  helped  to  inhibit  it.  Suddenly  it 
occurred  to  me  to  look  at  my  watch,  and  it  was  nine  o'clock, 
too  late  to  go,  and  I  had  made  considerable  progress  in 
thinking  out  the  chapter.  Similarly,  "students  will  find  that 
the  outlining  of  assigned  readings  will  serve  as  an  important 
mechanical  aid  to  attention.  Its  utility  from  the  standpoint 
of  clear  thinking  will  be  referred  to  later. 

Form  habits  of  disregarding  routine  distractions, — Another 
idea  or  habit  that  can  be  acquired,  and  that  is  more  or  less 
mechanical  in  its  operation,  is  that  of  disregarding  distrac- 
tions, as  discussed  above  on  page  359.  The  specific  reactions 
of  "  keeping  the  eyes  on  the  book,"  "  finishing  this  sentence 
before  looking  up,"  etc.  can  be  consciously  practiced  at  first 
and  later  become  more  or  less  automatic.  They  will  probably 
not  work  when  perfectly  novel  distracting  stimuli  appear,  but 
they  will  help  in  a  great  many  cases,  since  the  distracting  con- 
ditions tend  to  fall  into  certain  classes,  such  as  "  boy  sharpen- 
ing a  pencil,"  "  ruler  falling  on  the  floor,"  "  boy  wanting  to 
borrow  some  paper,"  "  teacher  pushing  back  his  chair," 
"teacher  opening  a  window,"  "teacher  reproving  inattentive 
pupil,"  etc.  Ideas  and  habits  of  disregarding  each  class  of 
distractions  can  easily  be  acquired.  To  be  sure,  the  distract- 
ing stimulus  may  be  noticed,  thus  producing  divided  attention 
for  a  moment,  but  the  retention  of  the  physical  attitude  of  at- 
tention to  the  work  in  hand  almost  immediately  shuts  out  the 
distraction.  In  some  classes,  as  noted  above,  routine  distract- 
ing conditions  do  not  even  produce  divided  attention ;  thev 
pass  entirely  unnoticed. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  409 

Thus  we  see  that  "  learning  how  to  study  "  and  "  forming 
habits  of  study  "  may  be  aided  by  certain  purely  mechanical 
arrangements  and  routine  habits,  such  as  a  study  program 
and  habits  of  "  going  through  the  motions "  of  studying. 
These  devices  are  helpful  in  studying  because  they  are  helpful 
in  directing  attention  to  the  work  in  hand. 

Concentrated  studying,  however,  must  be  secured  through 
interest.  —  But  effective  studying  involves  more  than  merely 
"going  through  the  motions";  it  involves  also  concentra- 
tion of  attention  upon  the  contents  of  the  material  to  be 
studied.  The  general  basis  of  such  concentration  was  shown, 
in  Chapter  XIV,  to  be  certain  instinctive  or  habitual  inter- 
ests. We  need  to  know  how  the  instincts  of  mental  activity, 
curiosity,  collecting,  manipulation,  communication,  and  co- 
operation can  be  made  effective  during  silent  study.  The 
discussion  of  the  general  application  of  these,  given  on 
pages  344-358,  will  probably  suffice  to  suggest  their  specific 
application  to  studying.  The  same  may  be  said  about  the 
habitual  interests  discussed  on  pages  358-361. 

Review  conditions  favorable  to  learning  discussed  in  pre- 
ceding chapters.  —  There  are  also  certain  specific  bases  for 
interest  or  concentration  of  attention  in  connection  with  each 
type  of  learning,  and  consequently  in  connection  with  study- 
ing or  practicing  along  each  line.  These  have  been  discussed 
to  a  certain  extent  in  the  chapters  on  learning  ;  hence  it  would 
serve  as  a  useful  review  for  the  reader  to  read  over  again 
from  the  present  standpoint  the  material  presented  there. 
For  example,  secure  an  answer  to  the  question,  What  are 
the  mental  conditions  favorable  to  concentration  of  attention 
in  motor  practice  and  in  memorizing,  and  how  are  these  con- 
ditions best  secured  during  periods  of  individual  practice  or 
study?  The  same  question  should  be  answered  for  reflective 
thinking,  for  habits  of  enjoyment,  and  for  expression.  The 
answers  can  be  worked  out  on  the  basis  of  the  chapters 
upon  learning,  self-activity,  apperception,  and  interests. 


410  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Scan  assignments  to  find  points  of  interest.  —  Special  note 
may  be  made  of  the  following  points  :  A  helpful  device 
in  some  cases  is  the  practice  of  skimming,  or  scanning, 
new  assignments  in  order  to  run  across  some  point  that  se- 
cures spontaneous  interest.  If  a  book  or  chapter  is  well  con- 
structed, the  first  part  should  be  the  most  important  part  to 
attack  first  in  order  to  understand  it ;  but  there  is  a  difference 
between  securing  understanding  and  securing  spontaneous 
attention.  An  interesting  illustration  with  which  an  author 
would  not  think  of  beginning  his  chapter  might  be  found  on 
the  third  page  and  arouse  spontaneous  interest  in  the  related 
discussion.  Sometimes  the  opening  paragraphs  are  so  poorly 
written,  owing  to  the  difficulty  that  the  author  has  experienced 
in  getting  the  swing  in  his  writing,  that  they  are  the  most 
uninteresting  and  unattractive  parts  of  the  discussion.  This 
fact  is  illustrated  by  the  following  example  given  by  Adams. 

An  experienced  editor,  in  engaging  a  brilliant  young  man  to 
assist  him  in  preparing  for  the  press  manuscripts  that  had  been 
accepted  for  his  magazine,  gave  this  advice :  "  In  many  cases,  par- 
ticularly with  essays,  you  will  find  it  a  good  plan  to  cut  out  the 
first  paragraph.  The  author  gets  down  to  business  in  the  second. 
You  will,  of  course,  be  prepared  to  have  all  the  authors  complain 
that  the  first  paragraph  is  the  best  in  the  essay,  the  fact  being  that 
they  have  given  so  much  time  and  care  to  the  beginning  that  they 
have  lost  all  sense  of  its  true  value."  (10 :  178) 

Hence,  as  a  device  to  assist  him  in  getting  interested  in 
studying  some  assignments,  the  student  may  wisely  omit  the 
introduction  until  it  becomes  of  interest  in  relation  to  later 
material  which  has  aroused  spontaneous  interest. 

Outline  is  an  aid  to  reflective  mastery  of  an  assignment. 
—  Another  point  that  may  be  reviewed  here  for  emphasis 
is  the  making  of  outlines,  or  briefs,  of  assignments  that  are 
being  studied  in  various  content  subjects.  This  practice  has 
already  been  mentioned  on  page  407  as  a  mechanical  aid  to 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  411 

attention.  It  was  also  discussed  at  length  on  pages  280-281 
as  the  basis  of  clear  thinking  preparatory  to  expression.  It 
serves  a  similar  purpose  in  securing  a  reflective  analysis  and 
clear  understanding  of  an  assignment  that  is  being  read.  If 
such  assignments  are  to  be  recited  upon,  the  outline,  or  brief, 
serves  the  double  purpose  of  being  an  aid  in  studying  and  an 
aid  in  expression. 

Principles  of  chapter  on  reflective  thinking  given  special 
application.  —  Finally,  special  attention  may  be  called  to  the 
discussion  in  the  chapter  on  reflective  thinking  (pp.  171, 
203),  where  the  point  was  made  that  books  may  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  require  and  stimulate  reasoning.  In  applying 
the  principles  of  reflective  thinking  to  the  study  of  assign- 
ments in  books,  teachers  should  make  it  clear  to  students 
that  it  is  this  reflective  mastery,  and  not  merely  verbal 
memorizing,  that  is  desired. 

Routinized  directions  to  students  to  assist  in  studying.— 
A  practical  illustration  of  how  some  of  these  points  may  be 
brought  to  the  attention  of  students  in  a  routine  way  is  found 
in  the  directions  printed  upon  Reavis's  study-program  card, 
which  was  described  in  part  above  on  page  403.  These 
directions,  which  appear  on  the  back  of  each  student's  card, 
are  given  below  with  a  slight  change  in  the  numbering. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  Follow  your  program  regularly. 

2.  If  possible,  study  your  lesson  immediately  after  the  assign- 
ment is  made. 

3.  Take  brief  notes  and  afterwards  restudy  by  outline. 

4.  Use  dictionary  and  reference  books  for  points  not  clearly 
comprehended. 

5 .  Concentrate  your  mind  so  that  outside  interests  will  not  fre- 
quently disturb  your  study. 

6.  Do  not  try  to  commit  exact  words  until  you  understand 
their  content. 


412  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

7.  Connect  the  important  facts  of  the  new  lesson  with  facts 
previously  learned. 

8.  Make  comparisons  and  contrasts  when  possible. 

9.  Carefully  review  and  think  over  the  previous  lesson  before 
beginning  the  next. 

10.  The  extra  effort  spent  on  preparation  pays  the  greatest 
intellectual  dividends.  (7 :  400) 

Special  technique  to  be  used  by  teacher  in  supervision.  — 
The  final  point  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  super- 
vised study  is  the  technique  to  be  used  by  the  teacher  while 
passing  around  the  room  and  giving  suggestion  to  or  asking 
questions  of  individual  pupils. 

Must  get  insight  into  pupil's  thinking;  objective  evidence 
desirable.  —  In  order  that  the  teacher  may  be  able  to  suggest 
and  question  intelligently,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  be  able 
to  get  some  notion  of  the  thinking  which  the  student  is  doing 
or  has  been  doing.  This  is  easily  done  in  mathematics,  since 
the  student  puts  the  operations  down  on  paper  to  a  consider- 
able extent ;  hence  the  teacher  can  usually  tell  at  a  glance 
what  progress  or  mistakes  he  is  making.  In  some  other  sub- 
jects there  are  definite  exercises  to  be  worked,  resulting  in 
objective  answers,  as  in  grammatical  work  in  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, and  in  problems  in  physics  and  chemistry.  In  the 
writing  of  the  briefs  of  compositions  the  teacher  can  also  get 
some  idea  of  the  pupil's  progress  by  the  objective  results  he 
has  produced.  In  some  other  subjects,  however,  such  as  his- 
tory, it  would  be  necessary  to  make  special  provision  for  such 
objective  products  of  studying.  As  a  step  in  this  direction, 
G.  E.  Rickard,  who  has  been  investigating  the  problem  of 
organizing  supervised  study  in  history,  summarizes  the  spe- 
cific aims  of  history  instruction  as  follows  : 

A.   To  develop  the  pupil's  ability  to  answer  questions  based  on 
i.  Acquisition  of  the  proper  concepts  of  new  and  technical  terms. 
"  2.  Mastery  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  text 
3.  Interpretation  of  source  material. 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  413 

4.  Abstracting  collateral  reading  and  connecting  it  with  the  out- 
line of  the  text. 

B.   To  develop  the  pupil's  ability  to  act  by 

1 .  Arranging  logical  outlines  and  abstracts  of  the  subject  matter 
of  the  text. 

2.  Arranging  tabulations  of  time  sequences  of  events  and  persons, 
grouped  according  to  some  convenient  unit,  as  decades  or  centuries. 

3.  Drawing  maps  which  shall  more  or  less  closely  approximate 
some  ideal  which  the  instructor  has  previously  analyzed  into  its 
elements. 

4.  Collecting  material  on  a  given  topic,  organizing  it  logically, 
citing  references,  and  preparing  bibliographies. 

Such  a  definite  tabulation  of  the  specific  aims  to  be 
achieved  in  the  studying  of  a  subject  like  history  is  the 
first  step  in  the  direction  of  getting  some  objective  basis  for 
determining  the  progress  that  the  student  is  making  while 
he  is  studying.  Obviously,  many  of  the  aims  cited  above  in- 
volve definite  objective  results  in  the  form  of  maps  or  out- 
lines, while  others,  such  as  the  interpretation  of  sources, 
might  easily  be  made  to  involve  the  writing  of  brief  answers 
to  definite  questions,  if  the  assignments  are  as  definitely  and 
skillfully  worked  out  as  those  cited  above  on  pages  174-176. 

Sometimes,  if  the  teacher  cannot  determine  what  progress 
the  student  is  making  by  simply  looking  over  the  latter's 
shoulder,  he  can  ask  the  student  questions  that  will  serve  the 
purpose.  Moreover,  if  properly  restricted,  students  may  be 
permitted  to  ask  questions  in  order  to  clear  up  difficulties. 

Skilled  questioning  to  avoid  assisting  too  mtick.  —  After 
the  teacher  has  determined  what  progress  the  student  is 
making,  the  next  point  is  to  devise  questions  and  sugges- 
tions which,  without  assisting  him  too  much,  will  keep  him 
thinking  and  progressing.  This  requires  the  finest  art  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  and  is  the  point  at  which  many  fail 
in  conducting  supervised  study  and  in  other  kinds  of  teach- 
ing as  well.  The  teacher  should  not  only  endeavor  to  avoid 


4H  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

too  much  direct  assistance,  but  must  also  avoid  the  opposite 
practice  ;  namely,  long-winded,  roundabout,  Socratic  question- 
ing. At  first  an  inexperienced  teacher  will  have  great  dif- 
ficulty in  achieving  a  success  in  the  type  of  supervision 
suggested  here,  but  as  he  becomes  well  informed  concerning 
the  specific  difficulties  encountered  by  students  in  specific 
types  of  problems  and  other  assignments,  and  as  he  gains 
some  skill  in  questioning,  he  will  be  able  to  see  at  a  glance 
what  the  student's  difficulties  are  and,  by  one  or  two  well- 
worded  questions,  to  start  him  thinking  in  the  right  direction. 
Sometimes  during  the  period  of  supervised  study  a  brief 
period  of  class  discussion  of  difficulties  may  be  desirable. 
Hence  Breslich  says  : 

It  becomes  evident  frequently  that  a  great  many  pupils  make 
the  same  mistake  or  encounter  the  same  difficulty.  This  may  indi- 
cate either  that  the  mistake  is  a  fundamental  one  —  one  that  cannot 
be  avoided  under  the  best  method  of  instruction  —  or  that  the  in- 
struction was  not  as  efficient  as  had  been  supposed  by  the  teacher. 
Very  often  the  teacher  learns  that  he  has  not  realized  how  different 
his  method  of  presentation  is  from  the  method  of  study  of  the 
pupils.  In  such  cases  the  class  is  asked  to  stop  working.  The 
mistake  or  difficulty  is  thoroughly  discussed,  and  work  is  then 
resumed  where  it  was  left  off.  (2 :  514) 

Examples  of  large  improvement  from  slight  assistance. — 
The  favorable  results  of  such  suggestions  in  aiding  students 
who  are  having  difficulties  is  illustrated  by  Breslich 's  account 
of  the  work  of  three  students  in  his  supervised-study  class. 
He  says : 

The  section  under  supervision  worked  with  more  confidence  and 
pleasure.  This  was  especially  true  of  the  slow  pupils.  A  girl  who 
had  failed  during  the  first  semester  and  was  in  the  class  on  condi- 
tion made  a  grade  of  78  in  the  test  on  this  chapter.  Her  grade 
in  the  final  examination  at  the  end  of  the  first  semester  had  been 
only  40.  A  boy  who  barely  received  a  passing  grade  at  the  end 
of  the  first  semester,  and  who  at  first  seemed  to  be  unable  to  do 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  415 

anything  under  supervision,  suddenly  found  that  with  a  little  greater 
effort  he  could  do  as  well  as  his  classmates.  There  was  an  immedi- 
ate improvement,  and  one  day,  when  a  speed  test  was  given,  he 
surprised  everybody,  even  himself,  by  leading  the  class.  A  girl 
returning  after  a  week's  illness,  and  still  in  a  weakened  condition, 
said  she  "  could  not  understand  anything  that  was  said,"  and  felt 
greatly  discouraged.  By  giving  her  a  little  more  attention  than  the 
other  pupils  she  was  enabled  to  do  the  work  before  the  end  of  the 
recitation,  and  had  no  further  difficulty.  Under  the  common  system 
of  instruction  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  such  cases.  The  teacher 
usually  allows  a  certain  amount  of  time  in  which  the  pupil  must 
"  catch  up."  Very  often,  in  addition  to  the  difficulties  found  in 
understanding  the  class  work,  "  back  work  "  is  assigned.  The  in- 
justice of  all  this  at  times  drives  some  pupils  to  use  dishonest 
means  of  getting  possession  of  this  required  work.  (1:  63,  2:  510) 

The  suggestions  need  not  be  restricted  to  intellectual  diffi- 
culties, but  may  relate  to  improvement  in  the  form  of  the 
work,  neatness,  more  economical  methods  of  procedure,  etc. 
In  the  case  of  bright  students  who  readily  complete  the  work 
required  of  all,  supplementary  assignments  can  be  made  when 
needed ;  that  is,  if  they  have  not  already  been  made  for  an 
extended  period  or  in  the  general  assignment. 

Supervised  study  on  new  topic  should  precede  home  sttidy. 
— An  important  rule  laid  down  by  Breslich  is  that  assignments 
of  work  on  a  new  topic  should  always  be  made  in  such  a  way 
as  to  enable  pupils  to  spend  some  time  studying  the  topic  in 
school  under  supervision  before  having  assigned  home  work. 
Concerning  the  relation  of  this  practice  to  home  work  he  says : 

Teachers  should  take  a  new  attitude  toward  home  work.  They 
should  break  themselves  of  the  habit  of  prescribing  the  regulation 
amount  of  home  work  daily.  Pupils  cannot  be  expected  to  prepare 
lessons  well  unless  they  know  definitely  what  is  expected  of  them. 
Rather  than  assign  a  lesson  of  doubtful  difficulty  and  receive  lessons 
poorly  and  dishonestly  prepared,  they  may  omit  the  home  assign- 
ment altogether.  Home  work  should  have  the  character  of  com- 
pleting the  class  work  of  the  previous  day,  not  of  preparing  for 


416  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  next.  This  will  enable  even  the  slow  pupil  to  apply  his  time 
to  it  with  success  and  profit.  Let  the  pupil  struggle  with  really 
new  work  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher,  but  let  home  work 
be  preceded  by  enough  similar  work  in  the  classroom  to  furnish  a 
pupil  a  clew  to  prevent  his  working  in  the  dark.  With  this  new  role 
assigned  to  home  work  a  change  in  class  methods  should  follow. 

The  time  ordinarily  used  for  recitation  should  be  shortened  or 
omitted  altogether.  The  time  gained  can  then  be  used  for  super- 
vised study  and  for  the  development  of  new  work.  (1 :  70) 

General  spirit  of  school  improved  by  supervised  study.  — 
Finally  it  may  be  noted  that  the  system  of  supervised  study 
introduces  a  much  better  general  spirit  for  both  pupils  and 
teacher  than  is  secured  by  the  ordinary  plan  of  recitations 
based  on  home  study.  As  suggested  in  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter,  upon  the  latter  plan  the  teacher  is  primarily  a  de- 
tective at  work  to  determine  how  well  students  have  per- 
formed, out  of  school,  tasks  which  have  been  assigned  them. 
Upon  the  supervised-study  basis  the  teacher  is  primarily  one 
who  assists  students  in  school  to  make  progress  in  their  studies. 
'Nearly  all  the  articles  referred  to  in  the  bibliography  at  the 
end  of  the  chapter  give  testimony  to  large  improvement  in 
discipline  and  decrease  in  nervous  strain  and  fatigue  as  "results 
of  the  introduction  of  supervised  study  on  a  large  scale. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  supervised  study.  —  This  will 
conclude  our  chapter  upon  one  of  the  most  important  reforms 
in  instruction  that  is  taking  place  at  the  present  time.  We 
showed  that  the  introduction  of  supervised  study  on  a  large 
scale  is  necessary  to  avoid  the  large  waste  of  time,  energy, 
and  community  money  that  commonly  results  from  the  poor 
or  unfortunate  students'  failing  to  carry  on  effective  study  at 
home.  Experimental  investigations  were  reported  which  show 
that  poor  students  learn  much  more  effectively  under  super- 
vised study.  The  conditions  favorable  to  study  were  discussed 
and  shown  to  consist  of  certain  physical  conditions  and  routine 
habits  which  may  easily  be  provided,  plus  arrangements  to 


SUPERVISED  STUDY  417 

secure  spontaneous  interest  and  concentrated  attentive  think- 
ing. The  latter  are  much  more  difficult  to  secure  and  necessi- 
tate special  procedure  in  connection  with  each  type  of  learning. 
Finally,  the  teacher's  technique  in  using  suggestive  super- 
vision without  too  much  assisting  was  described  and  the  gen- 
eral point  noted  that  supervised  study  upon  a  difficult  new 
topic  should  precede  home  study  upon  the  topic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  BRESLICH,  E.  R.     Supervised  Study  as  a  Means  of  providing 
Supplementary  Individual  Instruction.  Thirteenth  Yearbook  of  the  Na- 
tional Society  for  the  Study  of  Education.  (The  University  of  Chicago 
Press,  1914.)    Pp.  32-72.   A  survey  and  summary. 

2.  BRESLICH,  E.  R.    Teaching  High-School  Pupils  how  to  Study. 
School  Re-view,  October,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  505-515.    Report  of  ex- 
periments with  algebra  classes,  together  with  discussion  of  technique. 

3.  CALDWELL,  O.  W.     The  Laboratory  Method  and  High-School 
Efficiency.    Popular  Science  Monthly,  March,  1913,  Vol.  LXXXII, 
pp.  243-251. 

4.  KENNEDY,  J.     The  Batavia  Plan  after  Fourteen  Years  of  Trial. 
Elementary  School  Teacher,  June,  1912,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  449-459. 

5.  Ladies1  Home  Journal,  January,  1913.    Popular  protest  against 
home  study. 

6.  MINNICH,  J.  H.     An  Experiment  in  the  Supervised  Study  of 
Mathematics.  School  Review,  December,  1913,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  670-675. 
Excellent,   precise  measurements  of  efficiency  of  supervision.     Good 
tables  and  graphs. 

7.  REAVIS,  W.  C.    Importance  of  a  Study  Program  for  High-School 
Pupils.    School  Review,  June,  1911,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  398-405.    Sample 
of  program  card,  with  directions  for  improving  studying  and  measured 
results  of  improvement  made. 

8.  REAVIS,  W.  C.    Factors  that  determine  the  Habits  of  Study  in 
Grade  Pupils.    Elementary  School  Teacher,  October,  1911,  Vol.  XII, 
pp.  71-81.    Measured  results  show  influence  of  home  environment,  etc. 

9.  WIEXER,  W.    Home-Study  Reform.    School  Review,  Vol.  XX, 
pp.  526-531.     Enthusiastic  account  of  results  of  using  divided  sixty- 
minute  period,  one  half  for  supervised  study. 

10.  ADAMS,  J.    Exposition  and  Illustration  in   Teaching.    (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1910.) 

Exercises  and  added  references.  —  See  above,  p.  390. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  USE  OF  BOOKS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i.  The  use  of  books  is  a  most 
important  process  in  social  life,  and  it  is  the  most  economical 
means  of  instruction  in  school. 

2.  Textbook  study  should  be  supplemented  by  other  required 
readings  and   by  independent   investigations   by  students    upon 
assigned  topics. 

3.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  select  textbooks  that  treat 
subjects  intensively  in  a  manner  that  can  be  easily  understood  by 
students. 

4.  The  recitation  period  should  be  used  primarily  for  interpre- 
tative and  supplementary  discussion,  although  testing  should  not 
be  neglected. 

5.  For   required    supplementary   reading,    sufficient    duplicate 
copies  of  a  few  serviceable  books  should  be  available,  and  exact 
page  assignments  to  these  should  be  made. 

6.  Contribution  recitations  can  be  effectively  organized  on  the 
basis  of  such  supplementary  reading  and  of  more  elaborate  inde- 
pendent investigations  of  special  topics  by  individual  students. 

7.  In  such  investigations,  students  should  be  trained  to  pursue 
standard  bibliographical  methods. 

8.  The  system  of  oral  reports  based  upon  such  investigations 
should  be  standardized  and  routinized  so  as  to  include  frequent 
conferences  with  the  instructor,  descriptive  bibliographies,  care- 
fully prepared  briefs,  and  oral  reports  of  varying  length  adapted 
to  the  capacities  of  individual  students. 

Principles  previously  developed  to  be  applied  to  special 
technique.  —  In  the  discussions  which  preceded  this  chapter 
we  laid  down  most  of  the  fundamental  principles  that  should 
govern  instruction,  and  from  now  on  we  shall  be  largely 

418 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  4*9 

concerned  with  certain  special  types  of  technique  to  which 
these  principles  apply.  Among  the  topics  which  we  have  con- 
sidered and  which  should  be  kept  in  mind  as  the  background 
of  the  discussion  that  is  to  come  are  the  following :  the  fun- 
damental aims  of  education,  which  are  to  be  conceived  in  terms 
of  economic,  civic,  and  domestic  efficiency,  good  will,  and 
harmless  enjoyment ;  the  proximate,  or  immediate,  aims  of 
instruction,  as  health,  information,  habits,  ideals,  and  abiding 
interests ;  the  need  of  economy  in  the  management  of  all 
endeavor  to  attain  these  aims  ;  the  selection  and  arrangement 
of  subject  matter  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  contemporary  social 
needs  and  to  the  interests  and  capacities  of  the  students  ;  the 
way  the  learning  process  is  carried  on  most  economically  in 
the  various  types  of  learning  involved  in  high-school  studies  ; 
the  problem  of  adapting  lessons  to  the  students'  past  experi- 
ences and  present  frame  of  mind  in  order  to  secure  the 
desired  educative  responses ;  the  utilization  of  students'  in- 
stinctive and  habitual  interests  so  as  to  secure  economy  in 
learning;  the  arrangements  to  vary  assignments  and  reci- 
tations so  as  to  adapt  instruction  to  variations  in  the  capacities 
of  students  ;  the  supervision  and  direction  of  students  while 
they  are  studying,  in  order  to  avoid  misapplication  of  effort, 
Four  sources  of  subject  matter :  books,  teacher,  past  and 
present  real  experiences.  —  The  next  general  topic  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  special  technique  of  using  various  possible 
sources  of  subject  matter  in  accordance  with  the  principles 
outlined  above.  The  most  common  sources  of  the  subject 
matter  of  instruction  are  books.  Another  source  is  the  teacher, 
especially  when  the  lecture  method  is  used.  Other  sources 
are  the  students'  real  experiences  with  things  and  persons  in 
school  and  in  the  world  at  large.  The  laboratory  method  is 
based  on  the  use  of  the  present  real  experiences  of  students, 
while  their  past  real  experiences  are  often  especially  utilized 
in  conversational  methods.  Thus  we  may  distinguish  typical 
sources  of  subject  matter  which  give  four  types  of  method ; 


420  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

namely,  book  methods,  lecture  methods,  laboratory  methods, 
and  conversational  methods.  The  effective  administration  of 
these  methods  involves,  for  the  most  part,  simply  specific  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  discussed  up  to  this  point ;  but  in  order 
to  get  the  special  technique  of  each  method  in  mind,  we  shall 
devote  a  brief  chapter  to  each  one  except  the  lecture  method, 
which  is  so  seldom  used  in  American  high  schools  that  a 
special  discussion  of  it  is  not  needed. 

Reflective  reading  of  books  a  most  important  social  process. 
—  In  taking  up  the  consideration  of  the  use  of  books,  the 
first  point  to  get  clearly  in  mind  is  that  the  study  of  books 
and  other  printed  material  is  not  simply  a  matter  that  is  im- 
portant in  schools,  but  it  is  one  of  the  chief  means  of  getting 
ideas  in  social  life  at  large  in  many  fields  where  the  acquisi- 
tion of  new  ideas  plays  an  important  part.  It  is  necessary  to 
emphasize  this  point  because,  very  of  ten,  educational  reformers, 
in  their  zealous  emphasis  on  the  value  of  real,  first-hand  ex- 
periences, seem  to  overlook  the  fact  that  profiting  by  the 
experiences  of  others  is  equally  important.  The  reflective 
reading  of  books  and  periodicals  constitutes  one  important 
means  of  sharing  the  experiences  of  others.  Hence  any 
teacher  is  neglecting  his  duty  who  does  not  keep  thoroughly 
in  touch  with  the  developing  literature  of  the  subjects  he 
teaches,  and  who  fails  to  keep  students  at  work  upon  this  lit- 
erature and  to  teach  them  how  to  find  it  and  utilize  it  effec- 
tively. We  do  not  deny  the  value  of  shop  and  laboratory 
training ;  these  also  have  their  place ;  but  enthusiasm  about 
these  should  not  lead  to  the  neglect  of  training  in  the  use 
of  books  and  libraries.  In  every  field  intelligent,  reflective 
reading  is  increasing  in  importance  with  the  increase  in  the 
output  of  general  and  specialized  books  and  magazines  adapted 
to  the  rank  and  file  of  readers. 

Memorizing  ideas  from  printed  material  also  important 
in  practical  life.  —  Moreover,  not  only  is  reflective  reading 
important,  but  also  reading  which  is  intended  to  fix  the  ideas 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  421 

in  the  reader's  mind.  The  importance  of  reading  to  remember, 
that  is,  the  memorizing  of  ideas,  is  overlooked  by  many  radi- 
cal educational  reformers.  Very  often  I  hear  students  say, 
"  The  world  does  n't  care  about  what  I  know ;  it  cares  about 
what  I  can  do."  Usually  such  students  have  the  notion  that 
there  is  little  connection  between  knowing  and  doing.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  almost  all  significant  social  doing  depends 
upon  a  well-organized  body  of  technical  information,  and  in 
many  positions  the  amount  of  information  to  be  acquired  as 
the  basis  of  efficiency  is  very  large. 

In  view  of  these  facts  we  shall  emphasize  training  in  the 
use  of  books  and  other  printed  material  as  the  basis  of  some 
of  the  most  important  methods  of  instruction  to  be  used  by 
teachers  in  high  school. 

Books  used  as  textbooks  ;  for  supplementary  reading  ;  for 
investigations.  —  Procedures  in  using  printed  material  as 
the  source  of  subject  matter  in  school  may  be  classified  as 
follows  : 

1.  Study  and  recitations  based  upon  required  textbooks. 

2.  The  use  of  other  printed  material  by  the  students. 

a.  As  supplementary  to  required  textbooks. 

b.  As  the  principal  source  of  subject  matter  for  reg- 
ular recitations. 

c.  As  the  basis  of  extended  reports  by  students,  pre- 
pared after  independent  search  in  many  sources  for 
material. 

We  shall  consider  these  methods  of  procedure  in  the 
above  order. 

Textbooks.  Exercise  care  to  select  well-constructed,  appro- 
priate ones.  —  The  first  important  point  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  textbooks  is  to  exercise  the  greatest  care  in  making 
the  proper  selection.  The  teacher  should  acquaint  himself 
with  all  the  best  textbooks  in  his  line  by  reading  reviews 
of  new  books  in  educational  journals,  by  examining  collec- 
tions of  textbooks  whenever  opportunity  offers,  in  bookstores, 


422  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

libraries,  etc.  and  by  discussing  the  relative  merits  of  text- 
books with  other  teachers.  In  determining  the  merits  of  a 
book  the  principles  laid  down  in  Chapter  IV  on  the  selection 
and  arrangement  of  subject  matter  are  especially  important, 
and  the  reader  should  review  them  at  this  point  and  con- 
sider their  application  to  the  selection  of  textbooks.  If  this 
is  done,  the  teacher  will  select  textbooks  which  contain  mate- 
rial that  is  related  to  contemporary  social  needs,  and  that  is 
adapted  to  students  of  the  special  type  that  he  has  to  teach. 
Moreover,  instead  of  containing  a  very  meager  treatment  of  a 
great  many  topics,  each  book  should  contain  a  very  full,  illu- 
minating treatment  of  a  few  topics.  If  the  term  textbook 
must  continue  to  suggest  merely  outlines  of  topics  and  atten- 
uated general  statements  which  need  much  further  elabora- 
tion and  explanation  to  enable  students  to  understand  and 
appreciate  them,  it  is  time  we  adopted  a  term  that  would 
suggest  sufficient  fullness  of  treatment  of  a  limited  number 
of  topics  to  convey  easily  to  the  reader  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  topics  discussed.  As  Thorndike  says,  "  There  is  no 
wisdom  in  the  notion  that  a  textbook  is  to  give  the  subject 
matter  of  a  course,  but  in  so  difficult  a  form  that  every  teacher 
must  illustrate  and  explain  it  at  great  length."  (4  :  163) 

Avoid  misunderstanding  and  misuse  by  teacher. — After  a 
textbook  is  adopted,  the  teacher  should  study  it  thoroughly  in 
order  to  use  it  intelligently.  Some  books  do  not  involve  any 
necessary  order  in  the  study  of  the  chapters  which  they  con- 
tain. In  such  cases  any  order  which  the  teacher  may  devise 
might  prove  satisfactory.  In  other  books,  however,  little  de- 
parture should  be  made  from  the  regular  order  of  the  chapters. 
For  example,  in  Coulter's  "  Plant  Relations  "  technical  terms 
are  introduced  gradually.  In  the  beginning,  terms  of  ordinary 
speech  are  used  almost  altogether,  but  now  and  then,  when 
a  technical  term  can  be  introduced  to  advantage,  it  is  inserted 
in  parenthesis  after  the  ordinary  term  and  soon  is  substituted 
entirely  for  the  latter.  As  the  reader  progresses  through  the 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  423 

book  the  language  becomes  more  and  more  technical,  until 
he  encounters  such  sentences  as  are  contained  in  the  quo- 
tation given  above  near  the  bottom  of  page  206.  Obviously, 
a  high-school  student  introduced  to  the  book  at  this  point 
would  have  great  difficulty  in  reading  it. 

Another  type  of  mistake  in  using  textbooks  is  illustrated 
in  the  use  of  Thorndike's  "  Principles  of  Teaching,"  with 
which  readers  of  this  book  are  probably  familiar.  One  third 
of  Thorndike's  book  is  devoted  to  exercises  or  problems  which 
it  is  expected  will  occupy  two  thirds  of  the  student's  time 
when  he  is  studying  the  book.  Yet  I  have  known  instructors 
who  used  the  "  Principles  of  Teaching  as  a  required  text- 
book but  did  not  have  the  students  study  the  exercises  at  all. 
This  shows  that  even  when  a  textbook  is  so  constructed  as  to 
provide  especially  for  reflective  thinking,  teachers  may  fail  to 
use  it  so  as  to  secure  this  desirable  mental  activity.  Such 
misuse  of  textbooks  leads  Thorndike  to  say  : 

Many  of  the  evils  attributed  to  the  overuse  of  textbooks  are 
really  due  to  misunderstanding  and  misuse  of  them.  In  the  case 
of  a  good  textbook  there  is  a  reason  for  every  item  and  for  its 
position  in  the  whole.  Too  few  teachers  know  the  exact  purpose 
of  the  textbooks  they  use.  Too  often  a  teacher  uses  a  section  of 
a  book  much  as  a  savage  might  use  a  coat  to  cover  his  legs,  or 
as  a  child  uses  a  saw  to  cut  a  string,  scissors  to  cut  a  board,  and 
a  padlock  as  a  bracelet.  (4  :  166) 

Review  principles  that  apply.  —  In  the  use  of  the  text- 
books the  following  sets  of  principles,  discussed  at  length 
above,  should  be  applied  by  the  reader:  (i)  Principles  of 
economy  in  handling  materials,  discussed  on  pages  34-41  ; 
(2)  economy  in  memorizing  (pp.  153-164);  (3)  reflective 
thinking  (pp.  171-176,  191,  203,  206-212);  (4)  distinc- 
tion between  studying  and  reading  for  enjoyment  (p.  262)  ; 
(5)  avoiding  verbalism  (that  is,  words  without  ideas)  and  put- 
ting the  pupil  in  the  right  frame  of  mind  (pp.  301-311); 


424  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

(6)  arousing  interest  in  assignments   (pp.  338-339);    and 

(7)  assisting  pupils  while  they  are  studying  the  textbook 
(pp.  411-417).    The  specific  application  of  these  principles 
to  the  use  of  the  textbooks  need  not  be  elaborated  here. 

Textbooks  furnish  most  economical  basis  of  instruction.  — 
If  properly  constructed  and  used,  textbooks  provide  the  most 
economical  form  of  instruction.  As  compared  with  the  lec- 
ture method,  for  example,  Thorndike  estimates  that  "  the 
actual  facts,  principles,  and  applications  given  in  a  college 
course  of  ninety  hours  can  often  be  printed  in  a  book  that  a 
capable  reader  could  get  through  in  nine  hours."  (4  :  162) 

Textbook  may  train  in  reflective  study.  —  Moreover,  if 
properly  constructed  and  used,  textbooks  may  not  only  serve 
as  a  source  of  information  but  also  provide  directed  train- 
ing in  reflective  thinking.  The  construction  of  textbooks 
to  provide  such  training  in  other  subjects  than  mathematics 
has  been  treated  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  reflective  think- 
ing (pp.  171-176). 

In  order  to  secure  reflective  study  instead  of  mere  mem- 
orizing, two  practices  are  desirable :  (i)  assignments  should 
be  so  made  as  to  necessitate  a  study  of  the  textbook  in  order 
to  comprehend  it  and  to  secure  answers  to  problems  or  ques- 
tions which  involve  analytical  study  ;  (2)  the  recitation  period 
should  be  used  largely  for  interpretative  and  supplementary 
discussions  instead  of  simply  for  testing  to  determine  whether 
the  students  have  studied  their  lessons.  If  the  method  of  super- 
vised study  is  employed,  the  text  assignment  will  be  taken 
up  for  discussion  before  it  is  read  completely  by  the  students  ; 
then  the  class  will  be  put  to  studying  it  while  the  teacher 
passes  around  the  room  and  supervises.  The  objective  results 
in  the  form  of  outlines,  etc.,  described  above  on  page  412, 
should  require  reflective  attentive  analysis  of  the  assignment. 

Use  recitation  for  interpretation  and  application.  —  The 
common  practice  of  using  the  class  period  for  mere  repe- 
tition of  material  learned  in  the  textbook  is  one  of  the  most 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  425 

pernicious  sources  of  waste  and  lack  of  interest  to  be  found  in 
schools.  Time  is  wasted  because  nothing  new  is  provided  for 
those  who  have  learned  their  lessons,  and  interest  is  lacking 
for  the  same  reason.  Almost  the  only  way  to  secure  interest  in 
such  recitations  is  by  appeals  to  emulation  or  to  the  desire  to 
show  off,  or  through  fear  of  some  penalty.  Instead  of  such 
recitations  the  teacher  should  raise  questions  which  keep  the 
pupils  actively  thinking  because  they  involve  (i)  interpreta- 
tion, (2)  criticism,  (3)  supplementing,  or  (4)  application  along 
the  lines  studied  in  the  assignment.  The  fact  that  the  major 
part  of  the  recitation  period  is  to  be  given  up  to  this  type  of 
activity  does  not  mean,  however,  that  quizzing  to  determine 
whether  the  lesson  has  been  learned  should  be  omitted 
altogether.  The  latter  practice  should  also  be  specifically 
provided  for,  as  wjjl  be  described  in  a  later  chapter  on  testing. 
Supplementary  reading.  Provide  definite  assignments  to 
sufficient  duplicates.  —  A  most  fruitful  and  valuable  method 
of  instruction  is  to  have  one  or  two  required  textbooks  pos- 
sessed by  all  students  in  the  class,  and  to  supply  in  addition 
to  these  a  sufficient  number  of  duplicate  copies  of  a  few  closely 
related  books,  which  will  be  kept  on  reserve  in  the  library  or 
classroom  for  the  use  of  all  classes  that  are  studying  the  sub- 
ject which  they  cover.  These  may  consist  of  other  textbooks 
or  of  source  books  or  more  general  treatises.  Sometimes  these 
may  be  read  and  studied  in  class,  as  described  above  on  page 
38.  The  value  of  such  critical,  interpretative  treatment  of 
printed  material  is  self-evident.  The  justification  for  equip- 
ping schoolrooms  and  libraries  for  this  purpose  is  set  forth 
by  Keatinge  in  the  following  quotation,  which  follows  his 
discussion  of  the  using  of  sources  in  history  for  the  solution 
of  problems,  as  described  above  on  page  174. 

For  work  of  this  kind  it  is  essential  that  the  apparatus,  that  is 
to  say,  the  documents,  shall  be  in  the  pupils'  hands.  Documents 
as  read  to  a  class  have  their  value  as  giving  atmosphere,  but  for 
the  present  purpose  each  boy  must  have  his  own  book  of  extracts, 


426  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

which  can  be  supplemented  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  by  [mimeo-] 
graphed  slips.  The  science  teacher  is  not  expected  to  obtain 
results  without  apparatus ;  each  boy  is  provided  with  his  bench, 
his  balance,  his  test  tubes,  and  his  water  tap.  It  would  be  in  the 
highest  degree  unreasonable  to  ask  the  history  teacher  to  convert 
his  subject  into  an  educational  instrument  with  nothing  but  the 
textbook  to  fall  back  upon. 

Here  there  is  difficulty  to  be  faced.  If  documents  are  to  be 
provided  in  the  necessary  abundance,  a  series  of  volumes  is  re- 
quired, and  many  schoolmasters  would  shrink  from  asking  their 
pupils  to  buy  a  fresh  book,  at  the  cost  of  a  few  shillings,  for  each 
short  period  of  English  history.  The  science  laboratory  indicates 
the  solution  of  the  problem.  Boys  are  not  expected  to  buy  their 
own  water  taps,  Bunsen  burners,  and  other  apparatus ;  the  school 
provides  them  and  sometimes  makes  a  small  .  .  .  charge  for  their 
use.  In  the  same  way  the  source  books  here  referred  to  must  be 
supplied  as  school  property,  and  the  sum  of  some  twenty-five  pounds 
will  supply  a  complete  laboratory  for  school  use.  (5  :  92-93) 

Library  reading  an  uneconomical  primary  source  of  sub- 
ject matter.  —  Sometimes  teachers  advocate  having  no  re- 
quired textbooks  and  depending  entirely  upon  reference 
reading  as  the  source  of  subject  matter.  If  nearly  all  study- 
ing is  done  during  the  regular  school  day,  and  thoroughly 
adequate  equipment  is  provided,  and  definite  page  references 
given  in  the  assignments,  this  method  may  work  satisfactorily. 
Sometimes  teachers  try  to  use  this  method,  especially  in  col- 
lege, without  providing  for  these  essential  points.  The  result 
is  that  students  waste  a  large  amount  of  time  trying  to  get  an 
opportunity  to  read  the  assignments.  This  point  has  already 
been  covered  in  the  chapter  on  economy  in  classroom  man- 
agement (p.  38).  Often  the  very  instructors  who  object  most 
strenuously  to  the  use  of  textbook  methods  are  the  ones  that 
are  most  careless  and  neglectful  in  attending  to  the  routine 
of  organizing  the  arrangements  for  reference  and  reserve 
books.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teachers  who  provide  for 
the  most  economical,  effective,  and  educative  use  of  required 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  427 

textbooks  by  their  students  sometimes  provide  most  thor- 
oughly for  supplementary  reading  also. 

Use  mimeographed  study  questions  for  directing  reading. 
—  In  order  to  make  such  supplementary  reading  economical 
and  effective,  the  teacher  should  provide  not  only  mimeo- 
graphed page  references,  but  also  copies  of  questions  or  prob- 
lems to  be  used  as  the  basis  for  examining  each  reference. 
An  example  of  such  a  practice  is  the  following  from  the 
work  in  history  conducted  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Barnard  in  the 
University  of  Chicago  High  School. 

THE  WAR  WITH  PYRRHUS 
Assignment :  Plutarch  —  Life  of  Pyrrhus 

1.  From  what  heroes  was  Pyrrhus  descended,  according  to 
legend  ?   (Sec.  i.) 

2.  What  was  Hannibal's  opinion  of  Pyrrhus  as  a  general  ? 
(Sec.  8.) 

3.  What  were  the  difficulties  of  the  Tarentines  ?   (Sec.  13.) 

4.  Why  did  they  choose  Pyrrhus  as  ally?    (Sec.  13.) 

5.  What  were  the  motives  of  Pyrrhus  in  accepting  the  invitation 
of  the  Tarentines  ?    (Sec.  14.) 

6.  What  were  the  forces  of  Pyrrhus,  according  to  Plutarch  ? 
(Sec.   15.) 

7.  How  did  Pyrrhus  prepare  the  Tarentines  for  war  ?  (Sec.  16.) 

8.  What   did    Pyrrhus   commend   in    the    Roman    army    at 
Heraclea?    (Sec.   16.) 

9.  Give  reasons  for  the  defeat  of  the  Romans.    (Sec.  17.) 

10.  What  was  the  comment  of  Fabricus  on  the  result  of  the 
battle?  (Sec.  18.) 

Contribution  recitation  based  on  varied  supplementary 
assignments.  —  The  definite  assignments  to  easily  obtained 
supplementary  material  may  be  varied  for  the  different  mem- 
bers of  the  class  either  by  assigning  different  topics  to  dif- 
ferent students  or  by  assigning  different  authorities  to  be 
consulted  upon  the  same  topic.  Such  assignments  give  the 


428  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

basis  for  contribution  recitations,  to  which  reference  was  made 
on  page  288.  If  such  assignments  are  properly  routinized 
and  students  held  strictly  accountable  for  results  (that  is, 
for  consulting  the  authorities,  mastering  the  content,  and 
expressing  it  well  in  their  own  words  when  called  upon),  the 
contribution  recitation  constitutes  probably  the  best  type  of 
classroom  activity  in  connection  with  the  content  subjects. 

Reports  based  on  independent  investigations  of  assigned 
topics.  Special  technique  of  administering.  —  A  much  more 
elaborate  development  of  the  contribution  recitation  is  found 
in  the  oral  reports  made  by  students  after  considerable  inde- 
pendent search,  covering  days  or  weeks,  for  material  upon 
specially  assigned  topics.  Such  reports  involve  all  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  the  best  training  in  expression  and  in  the 
use  of  books ;  namely, 

1.  A  clearly  defined  topic  or  problem  upon  which  infor- 
mation is  desired. 

2.  Independent  search  for    printed    discussions   bearing 
upon  the  topic. 

3.  Selection   of    relevant   material    from    much    that    is 
irrelevant. 

4.  Independent,  careful  organization  of  the  relevant  ma- 
terial in  the  form  of  briefs. 

5.  Expression  of  the  results  of  the  investigation  to  an 
audience. 

In  the  administration  of  such  a  system  of  reports  many 
conferences  between  the  teacher  and  individual  pupils  must 
be  held.  If  regular  periods  of  supervised  study  are  provided, 
or  conference  hours  by  the  instructor,  these  conferences  can 
easily  be  arranged.  At  all  points  both  economy  of  effort  and 
effective  training  must  be  kept  in  mind.  We  shall  comment 
on  each  of  the  elements  numbered  above  from  these  points 
of  view. 

i .  Define  topic  clearly  during  conferences.  —  In  defining 
the  assignment  the  teacher  will  necessarily  play  a  large  part. 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  429 

since  each  pupil's  topic  and  report  must  fit  into  a  well- 
organized  scheme.  It  will  usually  be  found,  however,  that 
the  student  cannot  get  the  limitations  and  essentials  of  his 
topic  in  mind  at  the  first  conference,  because  he  has  little 
background  or  basis  for  doing  so.  Hence  he  should  be  sent 
away  with  the  direction  to  come  for  another  conference  after 
he  has  spent  from  one  to  two  hours  working  upon  the  topic 
in  the  library.  During  this  work  the  topic  will  begin  to  open 
up  to  him,  and  in  a  second  conference  much  progress  can 
be  made  in  laying  down  the  general  lines  that  are  to  be 
followed  in  the  investigation.  At  all  stages,  however,  the 
instructor  must  watch  the  student's  success  in  keeping  to 
his  problem  or  topic.  This  is  important  not  only  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  training  it  affords  the  student,  but  also 
because  it  avoids  overlapping  in  the  oral  reports.  Such  over- 
lapping removes  one  of  the  most  essential  conditions  of  suc- 
cess in  the  scheme  ;  namely,  the  existence  of  a  real  audience 
situation  for  each  student  who  is  reporting. 

2.  Definite  bibliographical  training  for  independent  in- 
vestigation. —  In  having  the  student  search  independently 
for  material  on  his  topic,  the  element  of  economy  of  time 
and  effort  is  sacrificed  somewhat  in  order  to  secure  greater 
training.  This  contrasts  very  strongly  with  the  course  pursued 
in  using  supplementary  assignments  as  the  source  of  subject 
matter  for  daily  recitations,  for  in  the  latter  case  the  most 
definite  page  references  to  readings  are  desirable.  However, 
the  requirement  that  students  should  search  independently 
for  material  does  not  mean  that  they  should  search  without 
the  aid  of  all  the  methods  of  skilled  bibliographical  work 
that  can  be  placed  at  their  disposal.  On  the  contrary,  they 
should  have  definite  specific  training  in  bibliographical  prac- 
tice. This  training  should  be  inaugurated  by  the  librarian  of 
the  high  school  (if  there  is  such  a  person  and  he  is  well 
trained),  or  by  the  English  department,  or  by  some  member 
of  the  faculty  who  is  a  skilled  bibliographer  —  for  some 


430  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

teachers  are  by  nature  and  training  much  more  skilled  than 
others  in  directing  library  work.  The  essential  elements  in 
the  technique  of  bibliographical  work  can  be  taught  in  a  few 
lessons.  The  chief  matters  to  be  taken  up  for  discussion  are 
the  following  : 

a.  The  location  of   libraries  and   collections  which   the 
students  may  use. 

b.  The  systems  of  classification,  cataloguing,  and  shelving 
used  in  the  libraries  to  which  the  students  have  access. 

c.  The  names  and  methods  of  using  standard  general 
books    of    reference,    such    as    the    various    encyclopedias, 
atlases,  almanacs,  yearbooks,  statistical  summaries,  etc. 

d.  The  names  and  methods  of  using  the  general  peri- 
odical indexes,  such  as  Poole's  Index,  the  Reader's  Guide 
to  Periodical  Literature,  etc. 

e.  The  names  of  special  bibliographical  aids  in  the  field 
in  which  the  topic  under  investigation  lies,  be  it  chemistry, 
or  history,  or  literature. 

f.  The  methods  of  making  a  fairly  thorough,  representa- 
tive, descriptive  bibliography  on  a  given  topic  before  doing 
much  intensive  reading  on  a  few  references. 

If  the  students  have  not  received  general  training  along 
the  above  lines,  the  teacher  using  the  method  of  supplemen- 
tary individual  reports  which  we  are  discussing  would  have 
to  train  the  students  himself.  He  could  do  this  by  giving 
the  class  general  directions  and  discussions,  and  he  might 
also  spend  a  little  time  in  the  high-school  library  or  public 
library  when  his  students  are  there,  in  order  to  give  them 
individual  assistance  at  the  beginning. 

Thorough  preliminary  bibliographical  survey  to  precede 
intensive  reading.  —  Paragraph  f,  concerning  the  methods 
of  making  a  survey  of  the  available  material  before  study- 
ing any  of  it  intensively,  deserves  special  emphasis,  since 
much  time  is  often  wasted  through  failure  to  follow  this  rule. 
Thus,  even  college  graduates  will  often  spend  hours  in  reading 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  431 

relatively  poor  discussions  of  a  topic,  because  they  happen  to 
have  found  them  first,  when  they  might  have  saved  this  time 
and  been  reading  much  more  useful  discussions  if  they  had 
continued  their  preliminary  bibliographical  survey  until  they 
had  covered  the  standard  literature  in  the  related  field.  I  have 
encountered  graduate  students  in  my  classes  who  had  been 
working  upon  experimental  investigations  of  educational  topics 
for  six  months,  and  who,  when  asked  if  any  similar  investiga- 
tions had  been  made,  have  replied,  "  No."  Then,  when  they 
have  been  directed  to  spend  five  or  ten  hours  upon  biblio- 
graphical work,  they  have  not  only  found  many  critical 
printed  discussions  on  the  topic,  of  which  they  had  no  pre- 
vious knowledge,  but  have  sometimes  found  that  the  very 
problem  upon  which  they  were  at  work  had  been  thoroughly 
investigated  by  others. 

The  number  of  references  that  can  be  found,  examined 
briefly,  and  described  in  writing  in  a  few  hours  of  well-directed 
bibliographical  work  is  usually  astonishing  to  students  who 
have  never  attempted  it.  When  this  preliminary  survey  is 
well  done,  it  commonly  results  in  the  discovery  of  excel- 
lent references  that  would  otherwise  have  been  missed  alto- 
gether, and  it  saves  spending  time  upon  the  reading  of 
inferior,  second-hand  material.  Hence  the  instructor  should 
require  the  student  to  report  at  a  conference  with  a  repre- 
sentative, descriptive  bibliography  before  he  proceeds  to  do 
much  intensive  study  of  selected  references.  There  is  a 
striking  contrast  between  the  results  obtained  in  high  school 
by  this  method  and  those  obtained  by  one  in  which  the 
student  finds  one  or  two  references  and  copies  his  mate- 
rial from  them. 

For  an  excellent  example  of  a  descriptive  bibliography  (that 
is,  one  that  contains  a  brief  description  of  each  reference)  the 
reader  should  examine  the  one  on  The  High-School  Library, 
in  Johnson's  "High-School  Education."  (2:  527-531.)  This 
will  not  only  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  character  of  a  good 


432  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

bibliography,  but  will  also  put  the  reader  in  touch  with  much 
valuable  material  along  the  line  of  the  present  discussion. 

Sometimes,  in  order  that  economy  of  effort  may  not  be 
too  much  sacrificed  in  favor  of  training  in  independent  search 
for  sources  of  information,  the  teacher  may  start  the  student 
with  one  or  two  references  which  will  open  up  the  way  to 
others.  As  indicated  in  the  discussion  of  the  collecting  in- 
stinct, on  page  354,  the  process  by  which  initial  references 
lead  to  the  finding  of  others,  and  these  to  still  others,  is 
often  a  fascinating  one.  Unfortunately  it  often  happens  that 
even  a  graduate  student,  whom  the  instructor  has  started  by 
referring  him  to  a  specific  chapter  that  is  filled  with  refer- 
ences to  the  monograph  literature  on  the  topic  under  investi- 
gation, will  come  back  to  his  next  conference  for  further  aid 
without  its  ever  occurring  to  him  to  pursue  the  references 
thus  opened  up  to  him. 

3.  Stimulate  the  careful  selection  of  relevant  material.— 
Training  in  the  rigid  selection  of  relevant  material  is  generally 
needed  by  high-school  students,  since  it  is  also  needed  even 
by  college  students  and  graduates.    Students  very  commonly 
fail  to  distinguish  between  material  that  is  interesting  in  gen- 
eral and  material  that  is  strictly  relevant  to  the  topic  as  it  has 
been  defined  for  the  purpose  of  the  report  to  be  prepared. 
Often,  as  a  result  either  of  mental  laziness  or  of  failure  to 
discriminate,  they  will  bring,  along  with  pertinent  citations 
which  they  have  found,  much  discussion  which  may  have 
been  appropriate  in  the  article  from  which  they  have  culled 
the  material,  but  which  is  not  appropriate  to  their  own  topic. 
It  is  clearly  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  check  this  tendency 
in  the  conferences  and  also  in  the  oral  reports,  if  the  irrele- 
vant material  ever  gets  that  far. 

4.  Well-organized  brief  necessary  for  clear  and  relevant 
report.  —  In  order  that  the  oral  reports  may  be  protected 
against  just  such  inadvertences  as  were  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  paragraph,  it  is  especially  important  that  before  a 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  433 

report  of  any  considerable  length  is  presented,  the  brief  upon 
which  it  is  based  should  be  examined  by  the  teacher.  The 
brief  should  be  very  strictly  inspected  from  the  standpoint 
of  clearness  of  thinking,  relevancy  of  material,  organization 
and  value  of  points,  clearness  of  phraseology,  etc.  As  stated 
above,  on  page  280,  where  the  use  of  briefs  was  discussed 
at  length  from  the  standpoint  of  training  in  expression,  they 
should  not  be  accepted  in  the  form  of  mere  outlines  of  topics, 
but  should  consist  of  completely  and  concisely  stated  propo- 
sitions or  sentences. 

5 .  Oral  reports  to  be  varied  with  capacities  of  students.  — 
The  oral  reports  upon  topics  which  have  been  investigated 
and  developed  as  described  above  may  vary  from  two  minutes 
to  fifteen  minutes  in  the  case  of  most  high-school  students. 
Occasionally,  longer  reports  may  be  given  by  specially  quali- 
fied members  of  the  class.  Individual  differences  in  capacity 
make  an  enormous  difference  in  the  amount  of  time  to  be 
allotted  to  different  students.  If  a  student  is  so  obviously 
deficient  in  native  talent  for  making  oral  reports  that  he 
would  never  be  expected  to  do  anything  in  this  line  in  the 
world  at  large,  it  would  probably  be  well  not  to  permit  him 
to  give  an  oral  report,  in  order  to  avoid  wasting  the  time 
of  the  class.  Other  students  might  be  relatively  lacking  in 
capacity  but  still  be  capable  of  getting  material  into  shape  for 
a  report  of  two  or  three  minutes,  on  topics  of  special  interest 
to  them  and  on  which  they  were  especially  well  informed. 
In  a  high  school  where  this  method  of  reporting  was  in  regu- 
lar use  in  the  content  subjects,  fully  two  thirds  of  the  students 
were  able  to  make  reports  that  were  satisfactory  from  the 
standpoint  of  effectiveness  and  the  economy  of  time  and  effort 
of  all  concerned. 

Inasmuch  as  these  reports  should  be  merely  supplementary 
to  well-organized  required  reading  in  textbooks  and  reserved 
books,  they  will  not  be  very  frequent.  It  would  furnish  very 
valuable  training,  however,  if  each  fairly  capable  student  could 


434  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

give  two  reports  a  year  in  each  of  two  or  three  subjects  —  for 
example,  in  history,  science,  and  literature.  For  each  of  these 
reports  considerable  time  could  be  spent  in  library  work  and 
in  the  organization  and  preparation  of  the  material  for  pres- 
entation. In  addition  to  these  longer  occasional  reports, 
shorter  reports  of  two  or  three  minutes'  length  might  be  pre- 
sented at  nearly  every  recitation.  Many  teachers  follow  this 
practice  not  only  in  high  school  but,  in  some  cases,  even  in 
the  elementary  schools. 

A  valuable  form  of  training  administered  by  standardized 
routine.  —  The  system  of  reports  discussed  above  illustrates 
the  combination  of  general  pedagogical  principles  which  occurs 
a  number  of  times  in  our  discussion,  (i)  In  the  first  place, 
a  process  and  method  which  is  of  fundamental  importance 
and  value  in  social  life  should  be  represented  in  the  training 
provided  in  school.  The  independent  investigation  of  topics 
and  the  organization  of  reports  upon  them  is  the  example 
which  concerns  us  here.  (2)  In  the  second  place,  the  system 
of  training  which  is  recommended  departs  from  the  ordinary 
practice  of  depending  entirely  upon  textbook  recitations,  and 
seems  very  elaborate,  since  it  requires  many  varied  assign- 
ments to  different  students  and  conferences  with  individuals. 
(3)  But  even  the  most  novel  and  complicated  scheme  can 
be  effectively  administered  with  little  extra  time  and  effort  if 
special  machinery  is  devised  so  that  a  large  part  of  the  admin- 
istration becomes  a  matter  of  routine.  Thus  every  movement 
proceeds  according  to  certain  definitely  standardized  steps, 
which  are  routinized  through  printed  and  mimeographed 
directions  and  by  strict  adherence  to  definitely  established 
rules  of  procedure. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  use  of  books.  —  In  this  chapter 
we  noted  first  that  the  use  of  books  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  important  and  valuable  methods  of  study  in  social  life. 
In  providing  corresponding  training  in  school,  properly 
selected  textbooks  furnish  the  most  economical  basis  These 


THE  USE  OF  BOOKS  435 

should  contain  thorough  and  adequate  discussions  of  carefully 
selected  topics  and  should  be  used  so  as  to  require  reflective 
analytical  study  and  interpretation  as  well  as  memorizing. 
Textbooks  should  often  be  supplemented  in  the  daily  class 
assignments  by  definitely  assigned  readings  in  a  select  list  of 
supplementary  books,  of  which  a  sufficient  number  of  dupli- 
cate copies  are  available.  In  some  of  the  content  subjects 
further  training  should  be  provided  in  the  independent 
investigation  of  topics  by  standard  bibliogiaphical  methods, 
according  to  a  definitely  standardized,  routinized  scheme  of 
assignments,  conferences,  briefs,  and  oral  reports. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  CHARTERS,  W.  W.   Methods  of  Teaching,   (Row,  Peterson  and 
Co.,  1912.)   Pp.  278-295.    A  chapter  on  the  use  of  textbooks. 

2.  KOCK,  T.   The  High  School  Library.   In  JOHNSON,  C.  H.,  High 
School  Education.   (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1912.)    Pp.  460-470  and 
pp.  526-531.    An  excellent  chapter  with  a  bibliography  which  should 
serve  as  a  model  to  all  makers  of  bibliographies. 

3.  STRAYER,  G.  D.    The  Teaching  Process.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911.)   Pp.  107-113.    A  chapter  on  the  recitation  lesson. 

4.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    Education,  a  First  Book.   (The  Macmillan 
Company,  1912.)    Pp.  161-167.   A  strikingly  original  discussion  of  the 
use  of  textbooks. 

Quoted  incidentally  in  the  chapter.  —  5.     KEATINGE,   M.   W. 
Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  History.   (A.  C.  Black,  London,  1910.) 


EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XVII,  see  Exercises  for 
™  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E  2i6-E  228.  These  pages 
include  also  a  poem  about  "  tunneled  textbooks,"  a  report  of  a  recitation 
On  socialism,  testimony  concerning  the  value  of  oral  reports,  and  sample 
directions  for  library  lessons. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter,  i.  Conversational  methods  depend 
largely  on  the  past  experiences  of  students  as  the  sources  of 
subject  matter. 

2.  These  methods  were  popularized  in  the  form  of  Pestalozzian 
oral  instruction  and  Herbartian  development  methods  in  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

3.  The  Socratic  method  is  an  especially  circuitous  form  of  the 
conversational  method. 

4.  Conversational  methods  are  very  likely  to  be  wasteful  unless 
controlled  by  definite  objective  points  and  unless  the  teacher  fre- 
quently tells  the  subject  matter  instead  of  waiting  to  elicit  it  by 
questions. 

5.  Conversational  methods  are  especially  useful  in  reflective 
thinking  and  in  making  assignments  of  lessons  to  be  studied. 

Conversational  method  works  over  the  student's  previous 
experiences.  —  The  methods  which  we  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  on  the  use  of  books  placed  the  emphasis  upon 
enriching  the  student's  experience  by  adding  to  it  in  consid- 
erable degree.  The  conversational  method,  which  we  shall 
consider  in  this  chapter,  depends  largely  upon  experiences 
which  the  students  already  possess.  These  are  recalled  and 
worked  over  so  as  to  derive  new  combinations  of  familiar  ele- 
ments. From  time  to  time  the  teacher  may  give  new  infor- 
mation if  it  is  needed,  but  for  the  most  part  he  asks  questions 
which  require  the  students  to  recall  certain  previous  experi- 
ences and  view  them  from  a  new  angle  or  use  them  for  a 
new  purpose.  Sometimes  the  experiences  which  are  drawn 
upon  are  quite  similar  for  all  the  students.  For  an  example. 

436 


CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS  437 

recall  the  instruction  concerning  the  difference  between  chem- 
ical and  physical  changes,  described  above  on  page  207.  If 
the  teacher  wished  to  work  out  this  difference  by  the  conver- 
sational method  instead  of  having  it  set  forth  in  the  textbook, 
the  examples  used  (namely,  rusting  iron,  exploding  powder, 
etc.)  would  probably  be  common  to  the  experiences  of  all  the 
students.  On  the  other  hand,  in  discussing  some  topics  cer- 
tain students  would  be  able  to  contribute  pertinent  experi- 
ences which  would  have  been  shared  by  very  few  members 
of  the  class.  For  example,  in  geography  lessons  it  often 
happens  that  students  who  have  traveled  or  lived  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  are  able  to  give  just  as  good  and  full 
information  concerning  a  certain  region  as  is  found  in  the 
books,  and  to  give  it  more  vividly  and  at  just  the  point  where 
it  is  needed  in  the  discussion.  Thus,  in  a  Chicago  school  a 
lesson  on  the  climate  of  California  was  being  taught  largely 
by  conversation  based  on  a  consideration  of  the  fundamental 
facts  of  elevation,  prevailing  winds,  etc.  Certain  students  who 
had  been  in  San  Francisco  and  others  who  had  been  in  South- 
ern California  gave  descriptions  of  the  climate  of  these  re- 
gions, which  verified  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  reflective 
consideration  of  physiographic  data  derived  from  the  map. 

Sometimes  called  the  development  method.  —  The  conver- 
sational method  is  especially  usable  in  reflective  thinking  or 
reasoning,  because  students  already  possess  a  large  body  of 
experiences  which  may  be  analyzed,  compared,  classified,  and 
worked  up  into  generalizations  or  interpreted  from  the  stand- 
point of  generalizations  which  have  already  been  achieved. 
It  may  also  be  used  in  connection  with  other  types  of  learn- 
ing, but  not  so  extensively.  It  is  commonly  called  the  devel- 
opment method,  but  the  term  conversational  method  is  chosen 
for  use  here  because  it  is  more  descriptive  of  the  character 
of  the  process  of  give  and  take  which  is  carried  on  between 
teacher  and  pupils  who  are  at  work  upon  a  common  topic 
of  discussion. 


438  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Entails  large  waste  if  used  by  an  ignorant  teacher.  — 
Apparently  skilled  teaching  may  be  carried  on  by  the  conver- 
sational method  by  teachers  who  have  had  little  training  but 
who  possess  considerable  natural  teaching  ability.  The  teacher 
and  students  are  all  mentally  alert,  there  is  keen  questioning 
and  active  discussion,  and  the  process  appears  very  fine  to 
an  ordinary  observer.  To  many  persons  such  activity  repre- 
sents the  acme  of  skill  in  teaching ;  and  possibly  it  is,  if  the 
content  that  is  worked  out  is  of  value  and  the  conclusions 
are  true.  Unfortunately  such  is  often  not  the  case,  and  igno- 
rant teachers  frequently  make  students  waste  their  time  in 
learning  matters  that  are  useless  or  even  false.  It  would  be 
much  better  for  them  to  be  discussing  and  interpreting  the 
meaning  of  assignments  in  textbooks  which  contained  material 
carefully  selected  and  arranged  by  experts  in  the  subject. 

Popularized  as  Pestalozzian  oral  instruction  in  nineteenth 
century. — The  conversational  method  became  popular  during 
the  nineteenth  century  as  one  phase  of  the  Pestalozzian  im- 
provements in  method,  especially  in  elementary  schools.  In 
the  Pestalozzian  reforms  oral  or  conversational  instruction 
went  hand  in  hand  with  object  teaching,  which  began  to 
supplement  textbook  instruction  to  a  considerable  extent. 
A  new  type  of  skill  was  required  in  the  former  method, 
different  from  that  often  employed  in  textbook  instruction. 
Hence  we  find  schoolmen  of  this  period  commenting  on  this 
fact ;  for  example,  W.  T.  Harris,  in  his  report  as  superin- 
tendent of  the  St.  Louis  schools  in  1870,  wrote  as  follows 
concerning  conversational  instruction  : 

It  seems  to  me  this  phase  of  the  subject  —  its  value  to  the 
teacher  —  is  worth  quite  as  much  as  the  immediate  value  of  these 
lessons  to  the  pupil.  .  . .  The  teacher  is  led  to  study  and  thoroughly 
prepare  herself,  and  then  in  the  lesson  she  is  led  to  probe,  in  a 
freer  manner  than  ordinary,  the  miscellaneous  fund  of  experience 
possessed  by  the  individuals  of  her  class ;  thus  she  cannot  fail  to 
find  herself  getting  more  and  more  emancipated  from  the  slavish 


CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS  439 

use  of  the  textbook  and  able  to  stand  before  her  class  with  a  con- 
sciousness of  her  strength  and  ability  to  draw  out  the  resources  of 
each  and  all  her  pupils  and  combine  the  same  into  one  result. 

Exploited  by  American  Herbartians  after  1890.  — A  second 
impulse  which  tended  to  popularize  the  conversational  method 
came  from  the  activities  of  American  followers  of  Herbart, 
whose  theories  were  vigorously  elaborated  and  exploited  in 
the  United  States  from  about  1890  to  1900.  The  best-known 
exposition  of  the  Herbartian  use  of  the  conversational  method 
is  found  in  the  chapters  by  Frank  McMurry  in  "  The 
Method  of  the  Recitation"  (published  1897;  revised  1903), 
a  book  written  by  two  brothers.  In  treating  the  step  which 
is  known  in  the  Herbartian  process  of  instruction  as  the 
step  of  presentation,  Frank  McMurry  says : 

The  developing  plan  of  teaching  is  one  radically  different  from 
the  lecture  and  the  textbook  methods.  The  teacher  who  employs 
it  lectures  but  little  to  her  class,  although  it  is  important  to  re- 
member that  she  does  tell  some  things  outright ;  neither  does  she 
allow  the  facts  that  are  to  be  learned  to  be  first  presented  through 
a  textbook;  she  prefers  to  develop  facts  and  conclusions  by  con- 
versation with  the  pupils.  (4:  121-122) 

Rx ample  of  conversational  treatment  of  a  geography  lesson. 
—  As  an  example  McMurry  details  a  conversational  lesson 
on  the  industrial  geography  of  the  British  Isles  as  follows  : 

In  the  developing  plan  the  book  would  not  be  used  at  first ;  the 
following  might  be  the  nature  of  the  conversation  that  takes  place 
in  the  class,  the  teacher  beginning  thus : 

Many  years  ago  it  was  discovered  that  there  was  an  abundance 
of  iron  ore  in  England  (showing  where).  Also  a  great  quantity  of 
coal  was  found  in  certain  places  (use  map).  So  much  being  true, 
what  might  follow  ?  When  people  have  plenty  of  iron  ore  and  coal, 
they  can  make  pig-iron  and  all  sorts  of  things  .  .  . ;  for  instance, 
nails,  screws,  hatchets,  axes,  plows,  rails,  locomotives,  all  sorts  of 
machinery,  cutlery,  iron  ships,  etc.  What  effect  would  that  have 


440  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

upon  the  number  of  people  to  be  found  in  the  region  where  these 
manufactories  exist  ?  Large  cities  would  spring  up.  Thus,  Man- 
chester, Leeds,  Sheffield,  Birmingham,  Nottingham,  and  Glasgow, 
which  you  will  find  on  the  map. 

Since  so  many  people  are  engaged  in  manufacturing,  what 
would  be  done  with  the  articles  that  they  make?  They  cannot 
use  them  all  at  home.  Then  what  will  be  done  with  them  ?  Some 
of  them  must  be  sent  away  to  other  countries.  What,  then,  will 
be  some  of  the  exports  of  England  ?  Rails,  engines,  etc.  Through 
what  ports  would  they  be  likely  to  leave  England  ?  (Examine  map 
frequently.)  It  would  depend  upon  the  direction  in  which  they 
were  to  be  sent.  If  to  Europe,  they  would  go  by  way  of  Hull  or 
London ;  if  to  America,  by  way  of  Liverpool  or  possibly  Bristol. 
What  effect  would  this  commerce  have  upon  the  size  of  these  ports  ? 

If  so  many  of  the  English  people  are  engaged  in  manufacturing, 
and  they  send  so  many  things  abroad  (to  America,  for  instance), 
what  are  some  of  the  things  that  they  are  likely  to  need  from  us  ? 
Food.  What,  therefore,  would  be  some  of  their  imports  ?  Grain, 
meat,  tobacco,  etc. 

But  England  is  an  excellent  country  for  grass.  Can  you  tell 
why?  Because  of  the  moist  atmosphere  and  frequent  rains.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  country,  too,  cannot  well  be  cultivated ; 
can  you  tell  why  from  the  map  ?  It  is  too  hilly  and  rough  in  the 
west  Yes,  also  in  places  it  is  too  swampy.  In  many  of  these 
regions  sheep  are  raised.  What  is  likely  to  follow  from  that  fact  ? 
Much  wool,  much  manufacture  of  clothing,  since  coal  is  abundant. 
Hence,  increase  in  size  of  cities,  in  importance  of  ports,  etc. ; 
clothing  is  one  of  the  exports,  etc. 

All  of  this  conversation  could  best  take  place  before  the  para- 
graph in  the  book  is  assigned  as  a  lesson.  (4 :  123) 

Contrasted  with  lecture  method  in  Herbartian  book.  — 
Another  example  of  the  use  of  the  conversational  method  as 
a  means  of  presenting  lessons  to  students  is  given  by  Frank 
McMurry  in  the  form  of  a  lesson  on  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill.  In  it  the  teacher  gives  a  few  facts,  and  then  the  stu- 
dents are  led  by  questions  to  discover  just  how  the  battle 
was  fought  out.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  method  of 


CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS  441 

handling  the  step  of  presentation  by  the  other  author  of  the 
book,  namely,  Charles  McMurry,  is  just  the  opposite  of 
that  used  by  his  brother ;  that  is,  Charles  uses  the  lecture 
method  in  his  sample  lessons  instead  of  the  conversational 
method.  This  comes  out  clearly  when  we  contrast  with 
Frank's  conversational  treatment  of  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill  Charles's  treatment  of  the  battle  of  King's  Mountain, 
given  on  pages  270-281  of  "  The  Method  of  the  Recitation." 
In  the  latter  case  the  step  of  presentation  consists  of  eight 
pages  of  almost  solid  lecture  supposed  to  be  derived  by  the 
teacher  from  Irving  and  Fiske's  "  Washington  and  his 
Country."  This  extreme  contrast  in  the  treatment  of  the 
same  step  in  the  so-called  development  method  is  one  reason 
why  we  use  the  term  conversational  method  here  instead.  It 
is  often  difficult  to  determine  just  what  is  meant  by  the  term 
development  as  applied  in  discussions  of  method. 

Criticism  of  eliciting  everything  by  questions.  —  The  con- 
trasting extremes  in  the  treatment  of  the  step  of  presentation, 
namely,  conversation  and  lecturing,  are  often  found  in  the 
organization  of  practice  teaching  in  normal  schools.  The 
extreme  of  eliciting  everything  by  conversation  is  criticized 
by  Adams  in  the  following  quotation  : 

The  view  that  all  teaching  resolves  itself  into  the  direct  giving 
of  information,  the  telling  the  pupil  something  new,  has  produced 
a  natural  reaction  which  leads  to  error  in  the  application  of  presen- 
tation, or  rather  by  the  elimination  of  presentation.  From  their 
studies  in  theory  young  teachers  are  inclined  to  avoid  anything  in 
the  form  of  direct  presentation.  The  second  step  [in  the  Her- 
bartian  formal  steps,  namely,  presentation],  while  still  monopolizing 
their  attention,  is  regarded  with  suspicion.  What  is  contemptuously 
called  "  telling "  is  regarded  by  these  young  teachers  as  in  the 
highest  degree  unintelligent  and  unscientific,  and  they  fall  into  ludi- 
crous errors  in  their  efforts  to  avoid  it.  Everything  must  be,  in  the 
words  of  their  textbooks,  "  elicited  from  the  pupil  by  skillful  ques- 
tioning." They  do  not  realize  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  knowl- 
edge, one  that  must  be  communicated  directly  and  another  that 


442  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

may  be  worked  up  from  materials  already  in  the  mind.  We  want 
very  badly  a  couple  of  words  to  keep  those  two  kinds  of  knowl- 
edge from  getting  mixed.  I  cast  covetous  eyes  on  the  two  words 
information  and  instruction.  The  first  would  very  well  represent 
the  communication  of  new  facts,  the  second  might  stand  for  the 
rearrangement  of  facts  that  are  already  known  to  the  pupil-mind 
in  one  way,  but  that,  by  being  recombined,  may  produce  knowledge 
that  was  latent,  if  you  like,  but  that  certainly  would  never  have 
come  to  light  at  that  stage  but  for  the  intermediation  of  the 
teacher.  It  is  information  to  tell  me  the  Japanese  word  for  a  tree. 
If  I  do  not  happen  to  know  the  word,  no  amount  of  skillful  ques- 
tioning will  ever  elicit  it  from  me.  On  the  other  hand,  the  general- 
ized formulae  of  Euler's  theorem  may  be  said  to  be  implicit  in  the 
pupil's  mind  before  he  approaches  the  problem.  All  the  teacher 
has  to  do  is  to  arrange  that  certain  ideas  shall  be  grouped  in  a 
particular  way,  and  the  formulae  issue  of  themselves.  The  mean- 
ing of  instruere,  that  our  dealings  with  Caesar  have  familiarized  us 
with,  comes  in  very  appositely  here.  The  general  draws  up  the 
line  of  battle,  now  making  one  formation,  now  another.  In  every 
case  the  men,  like  the  ideas,  are  given.  Information  is  as  different 
from  instruction  as  recruiting  is  from  drilling.  (1 :  153) 

The  Socratic  method  a  circuitous  form  of  the  conversational 
method.  —  A  special  form  of  the  conversational  method  is  the 
Socratic  method.  Sometimes  the  latter  term  is  used  to  desig- 
nate any  question-and-answer  method  of  instruction,  but  this 
is  probably  too  broad  a  meaning  to  give  it.  There  are  two 
notable  characteristics  of  the  dialogues  which  we  think  of  as 
being  those  of  Socrates  :  the  first  is  that  Socrates  did  nearly 
all  of  the  thinking  and  suggesting,  the  person  who  was  ques- 
tioned serving  largely  as  a  foil  or  mark,  just  as  one  end  man 
does  in  a  minstrel  show  when  the  other  is  telling  a  joke ; 
the  second  characteristic  is  the  large  amount  of  contradiction 
in  which  Socrates  artfully  entangled  the  unsuspecting  foil  or 
"  quizzee."  Just  as  the  minstrel  method  often  seems  a  need- 
lessly long-winded,  unnecessarily  elaborated  method  of  getting 
a  joke  to  an  intelligent  audience,  so  the  Socratic  method, 


CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS  443 

when  applied  to  the  teaching  of  specific  truths,  seems  a 
needlessly  roundabout  and  wasteful  method  of  reaching  a 
definite  point. 

Example  of  modern  Socratic  method.  —  An  example  of  a 
typical  Socratic  lesson  is  given  by  Adams  and  quoted  below. 
In  studying  it  the  reader  should  consider  whether  a  more 
direct  method  of  handling  the  difficulty  would  not  have  been 
more  economical  and  just  as  effective.  Adams  says  : 

To  illustrate,  take  the  case  of  that  constant  difficulty  at  the 
early  stages  of  composition,  the  incomplete  sentence.  Pupils 
brought  up  in  illiterate  homes  are  very  apt  to  make  a  relative 
clause  stand  by  itself,  with  no  other  help  than  the  original  gram- 
matical subject.  In  schools  where  the  pupils  come  from  homes 
in  which  grammatical  English  is  habitually  spoken,  there  is  not  so 
much  danger  of  this  particular  form  of  error,  but  every  teacher  in  a 
school  for  the  poorer  classes  is  unpleasantly  familiar  with  such  a  sen- 
tence in  a  pupil's  exercise  book  as  "John  who  broke  the  window." 
The  following  is  a  verbatim  reproduction  of  a  lesson  actually  given 
to  a  class  of  about  sixty-five  rather  dull  boys  whose  ages  average 
eleven  and  one-half  years.  The  sentence  had  occurred  in  one  of 
the  class  exercise  books,  and  was  placed  on  the  blackboard,  as  it  had 
been  written,  with  the  addition  of  a  comma  after  the  word  John. 

Teacher.  Now  what  did  John  do  ? 

Pupil.    (Confidently)  Broke  the  window. 

T.  Then  what  did  who  do  ? 

P.  Broke  the  window. 

T.  Were  there  two  windows,  then  ? 

P.  No,  sir. 

T.  Then  who  broke  it  ? 

P.  John. 

T.  And  what  did  who  do  ? 

P.  (Doubtfully)  It  says  "  who  broke  the  window." 

7!  Did  it  take  two  to  break  the  window  ? 

P.  No,  sir. 

T.  Then  which  of  them  did  the  breaking  ? 

(Pupils  puzzled.    No  answer.) 

T.  How  many  people  were  there  altogether  ? 


444  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

P.  (Cautiously)  John  and  who. 

T.  Now,  which  was  bigger,  John  or  who  ? 

P.  They  're  both  the  same. 

T.  Then  there  was  only  one  person  there  ? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  And  what  was  his  name  ? 

P.  John. 

T.  And  what  did  he  do  ? 

P.  Broke  the  window. 

T.  Then  would  it  not  be  enough  to  say,  "John  broke  the 
window  "  ? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  Is  that  what  it  says  on  the  blackboard  ? 

P.  No,  sir ;  it  says,  "  John  who  broke  the  window." 

T.  And  John  and  who  are  the  same  person  ? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  Then  they  both  have  the  same  right  to  the  verb  ? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  Which  of  them  is  nearer  the  verb  ? 

P.    Who. 

T.  What  mark  is  between  John  and  the  verb  ? 

P.  A  comma. 

T.  Now  if  only  one  of  the  two  can  claim  the  verb,  which  has 
the  better  right  to  it  ? 

P.    Who. 

T.  And  every  noun  and  pronoun  that  is  a  subject  must  have 
a  verb? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  Then  if  who  gets  broke,  what  verb  is  left  for  John  ? 

P.  None. 

T.  How  many  subjects  are  there  here  ? 

P.  Two. 

T.  And  how  many  verbs  ? 

P.  One. 

T.  And  every  subject  must  have  a  verb  ? 

P.  Yes,  sir. 

T.  How  many  verbs  do  we  need,  then,  besides  broke  ? 

P.  One. 


CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS  445 

71  Give  me  one. 

(No  answer.) 

T,  John  (who  broke  the  window)  did  something,  or  was  some 
thing.    What  would  you  do  if  you  broke  a  window  ? 
P.  (Promptly)  Run  away,  sir. 

T.  Finish  it,  then.   John,  who  broke  the  window, . 

P.  Ran  away. 

T,  Which  are  the  two  verbs  now  ? 

P.  Broke  and  ran. 

T.  Which  belongs  specially  to  who  ? 

P.  Broke. 

T.  And  to  John  ? 

P.  Ran.    (1:  81-82) 

Some  teachers  approve  extreme  wandering  in  discussions. 

—  Sometimes  teachers  who  are  using  the  conversational 
method  do  not  keep  any  specific  objective  point  in  mind, 
being  unlike  Socrates,  who  always  had  a  definite  purpose, 
although  the  foil  or  person  who  was  being  questioned  was 
generally  unaware  of  it  and  did  n't  know  whither  he  was  be- 
ing driven.  These  teachers  sometimes  say  they  do  not  care 
where  the  students  arrive,  so  long  as  they  are  mentally  active. 
The  teachers  take  up  with  any  issue  that  is  raised  in  the  class 
discussion  and  follow  it  anywhere  it  leads.  Sometimes  they 
sincerely  believe  that  this  is  the  best  use  to  which  the  class 
period  could  be  put.  Sometimes  they  are  lazy  teachers  who 
fail  to  prepare  definite  material  for  the  period  and  find  it  an 
easy  way  to  keep  the  class  interested  and  to  get  through  the 
hour.  Sometimes  they  are  easy  teachers  who  do  not  require 
their  students  to  study  consistently  and  for  whom  the  latter 
prepare  by  saying,  "  Let 's  see  if  we  can't  get  up  a  discussion 
to-day,  so  we  won't  have  to  recite."  Sometimes  the  teachers 
are  incompetent  thinkers,  who  cannot  distinguish  quickly 
between  what  is  relevant  and  useful  and  what  is  not ;  hence 
they  easily  get  led  astray  in  the  discussions  by  inappropriate 
suggestions  of  the  students. 


446  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Much  better  to  tell  some  things  than  to  waste  time.  — 
Such  poor  administration  of  the  conversational,  or  question- 
and-answer,  method  is  condemned  by  Bagley  in  the  follow- 
ing words : 

Among  some  educators  there  is  a  superstition  that  the  question- 
and-answer  method  is  the  only  true  method  of  instruction.  This 
exaggerated  view  finds  expression  in  the  unwillingness  to  impart 
information  in  any  way  save  by  Socratic  questioning.  Valuable 
time  is  spent  in  attempting  to  get  children  to  discover  unimportant 
truths  under  a  vague  and  hazy  notion  that  it  does  n't  matter  much 
what  the  truth  is  so  long  as  the  child  discovers  it  for  himself,  and 
so  anxious  is  the  teacher  to  have  him  discover  it  for  himself  that 
he  spends  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  in  a  "  pumping  "  process  to 
get  a  result  which  could  have  been  stated  in  as  many  seconds. 

It  is  this  tendency  to  beat  about  the  bush  that  constitutes  the 
most  dangerous  pitfall  of  the  question-and-answer  method. .  Some 
judgments  are  not  worth  developing ;  they  may  better  be  stated  as 
clearly  and  tersely  as  possible.  The  danger  of  confusing  the  pupil 
with  a  mass  of  details  is  also  a  source  of  some  inadequate  results 
in  the  application  of  this  method  by  unskilled  teachers.  If  the 
teacher  is  himself  incapable  of  keeping  system  and  unity  in  his 
thinking,  he  will  find  that  his  pupils  cannot  do  it  for  him.  (2  :  274) 

Conversational  method  wastefidly  tised  in  pedagogical  dis- 
cussions.—  Some  of  the  best  examples  of  the  enormous  waste 
that  sometimes  characterizes  the  conversational  method  are 
found  in  the  discussions  in  classes  which  are  studying  edu- 
cation. For  example,  I  visited  a  class  of  graduate  students 
which  was  discussing  methods  of  teaching  music.  They  be- 
came sidetracked  on  some  point  concerning  the  perception 
of  tonal  differences.  Nobody  in  the  class,  including  the 
teacher,  really  had  any  reliable  knowledge  about  the  matter. 
Yet  they  spent  forty-five  minutes  debating  it  vigorously, 
although  they  were  no  nearer  the  truth  at  the  end  than  at 
the  beginning  of  the  discussion.  After  the  class  was  over, 
I  went  to  the  library,  took  down  from  the  shelves  a  book  on 


CONVERSATIONAL  METHODS  447 

the  "  Psychology  of  Tone  Perception,"  looked  up  the  topic 
in  the  index,  turned  to  the  appropriate  page,  and  found  in 
three  minutes  the  experimentally  determined  answer  to  the 
question  upon  which  thirty  adults  had  each  wasted  forty-five 
minutes  of  debate  —  a  total  of  one  thousand  three  hundred 
fifty  minutes,  or  twenty-two  and  one-half  hours,  of  human  time. 

Legitimate  uses.  Conversational  solution  of  problems  valu- 
able if  properly  controlled.  —  In  spite  of  the  obvious  dangers 
which  beset  the  use  of  the  conversational  method,  it  has  cer- 
tain very  legitimate  uses.  As  suggested  above,  its  best  place 
is  in  the  reflective  solution  of  problems  which  the  teacher  has 
thoroughly  mastered  and  for  which  the  children  possess  the 
necessary  data  in  their  past  experience.  In  such  cases  the 
important  things  for  the  teacher  to  keep  in  mind  are  the 
following:  (i)  To  avoid  being  sidetracked.  (2)  To  avoid 
spending  too  much  time  in  an  endeavor  to  get  the  class  to 
discover  a  point.  In  order  to  preserve  the  balance  of  relative 
values  the  teacher  should  give  some  points  outright  or  after 
a  brief  endeavor  of  the  class  to  discover  them.  (3)  To  adapt 
the  pace  to  individual  differences  in  capacities,  not  holding 
up  the  bright  pupils  too  long  or  hurrying  so  fast  that  the 
slow  have  no  chance  to  contribute. 

Conversational  assignments  important  aids  to  study.  — 
Another  place  where  the  conversational  method  is  especially 
valuable  is  in  assigning  lessons  to  be  studied.  In  the  case  of 
reflective  thinking  it  serves  to  get  the  problem  in  mind,  to 
get  started  upon  its  solution,  to  anticipate  and  eliminate  some 
of  the  chief  difficulties,  and  to  arouse  curiosity  to  pursue  the 
matter  farther.  In  the  case  of  acquiring  habits  of  enjoyment 
it  serves  to  give  the  necessary  emotional  setting  which  will  be 
conducive  to  responses  of  enjoyment.  In  the  case  of  training 
in  expression  a  preliminary  conversation  may  be  very  effective 
in  getting  students  aroused  to  the  point  of  being  desirous  of 
expressing  themselves.  It  also  aids  in  getting  topics  defined 
and  even  in  getting  freshly  in  mind  the  more  formal  phases 


448  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

of  technique,  such  as  outlining,  paragraphing,  etc.  Care  in  the 
making  of  such  conversational  assignments  is  a  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  good  teaching  in  many  subjects.  In  order  that 
it  may  be  most  effective,  the  assignment  should  be  followed 
immediately  by  a  period  of  supervised  study  (cf.  p.  415). 

Conversational  methods  in  learning  foreign  language.— 
Conversational  methods  have  a  large  place  in  the  teaching 
of  a  foreign  language,  but  since  a  special  chapter  has  been 
devoted  to  the  learning  of  a  foreign  vocabulary  by  the  direct 
method,  no  further  discussion  is  necessary  (cf.  p.  122). 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  conversational  methods. — This 
will  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  conversational  method, 
which,  as  we  noted  above,  is  considered  by  many  teachers 
to  be  the  most  effective  of  all  methods.  While  it  may  be 
effective  when  properly  administered,  it  is  relatively  uneco- 
nomical in  high  school  as  compared  with  the  method  of 
interpretative  recitations  and  discussions  based  on  assigned 
readings  and  lectures.  It  is  especially  useful,  however,  in  the 
reflective  solution  of  problems  for  which  students  already 
have  adequate  data.  In  such  cases  the  activity  should  be 
fairly  direct ;  elaborate  circumlocutions  should  be  avoided.  The 
conversational  method  is  also  especially  valuable  in  assigning 
certain  types  of  lessons  to  be  studied. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  ADAMS,}.  Exposition  and  Illustration  in  Teaching.  (The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1910.)    Pp.  80-84  ancl  I52-I54- 

2.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.    The  Educative  Process.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1905.)   Pp.  273-274. 

3.  CHARTERS,  W.  W.  Methods  of  Teaching.  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co., 
1912.)   Pp.  270-277,  300-304,  307-310. 

4.  McMuRRY.    Method  of  the  Recitation.    (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1903.)    Pp.  118-184.    The  most  influential  discussion  of  the  con- 
versational method. 

5.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.    Education,  a  First  Book.   (The  Macmillan 
Company,  1912.)    Pp.   188-196. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

LABORATORY  METHODS 

Main  points  of  the  chapter,  i.  Laboratory  methods  provide 
new  real  experiences  as  the  basis  for  acquiring  information  or 
motor  skill,  or  for  carrying  on  reflective  thinking. 

2.  Teachers  should  exercise  special  care  in  selecting  laboratory 
manuals  that  provide  experimentation  which  is  related  to  the  general 
issues  of  practical  life  and  to  the  interests  of  high-school  students. 

3.  The  laboratory  method  is  often  a  very  uneconomical  method 
of  learning,  and  the  substitution  of  lecture  demonstrations  for  in- 
dividual experimentation  is  often  justified. 

4.  Skill  in  manipulation  is  relatively  unimportant  in  most  forms 
of  high-school  laboratory  work. 

5.  For  training  in  reflective  thinking,  laboratory  exercises  should 
grow  out  of  problems  raised  in  discussions,  and  should  not  consist 
merely  of  following  recipes  or  set  directions. 

Laboratory  methods  may  secure  information,  reflective 
thinking,  and  skill.  —  Laboratory  methods  provide  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  instruction  in  the  form  of  real  present  experi- 
ences for  students.  This  practice  contrasts  with  the  previous 
methods  which  we  have  considered,  in  which  the  subject 
matter  was  derived  from  books  or  from  the  teacher,  or  from 
the  past  real  experiences  of  students.  In  the  laboratory,  real 
experiences  are  provided  primarily  for  three  purposes;  namely, 
(i)  for  information  secured  through  observation,  (2)  for  the 
experimental  solution  of  problems  guided  by  reflective  think- 
ing, (3)  for  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  manipulation. 

i.  Securing  information  through  observation  is  predomi- 
nant in  the  study  of  the  structure  of  plants  and  animals  in 
biological  laboratories.  It  is  also  prominent  in  many  processes 

449 


450  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

in  chemical  laboratories — for  example,  in  learning  what 
kinds  of  precipitates  are  formed  with  various  solutions  of 
salts  and  acids. 

2.  The  reflective  solution  of  problems  by  experimentation 
is  present  in  the  study  of  problems  in  physics  (for  example,  in 
work  with  pulleys)  and  in  chemistry  (for  example,  in  qualita- 
tive analysis  of  unknown  compounds). 

3.  Acquiring  skill  in  manipulation  is  prominent  in  the 
biological  sciences  in  dissection,  and  in  chemistry  in  the  con- 
struction of  apparatus  and  the  management  of  such  processes 
as  precipitation,  drying,  weighing,  distillation,  etc. 

All  of  these  purposes  (namely,  acquiring  information 
through  observation,  solving  problems,  and  acquiring  skill 
in  manipulation)  are  prominent  in  domestic  science  —  for 
example,  in  the  making  of  bread. 

Individual  laboratory  work  a  recent  development.  —  His- 
torically the  extensive  adoption  of  individual  laboratory  work 
in  high  schools  is  a  matter  of  relatively  recent  development. 
For  example,  concerning  the  introduction  of  laboratory  exer- 
cises in  physics  Kester  says  : 

The  laboratory  feature  of  the  secondary-school  treatment  was 
not  introduced  until  late  in  the  seventies  ;  .  .  .  very  few  high  schools 
pretended  in  1880  to  give  any  laboratory  instruction  to  their  stu- 
dents. Yet  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  laboratory  must  have 
been  in  the  air  in  those  days,  for  when  Gage's  "  Elements  of 
Physics  "  appeared  in  the  early  eighties,  fairly  well  imbued  with 
the  idea  of  individual  experimentation,  it  acquired  wide  use  and 
influence  largely  because  of  this  feature.  It  was  about  this  time 
(1886  by  actual  record)  that  Harvard  College  began  to  lead  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  country  by  an  entrance  requirement 
of  laboratory  instruction.  The  innovation  was  made  in  a  very  radi- 
cal manner.  .  .  .  The  emphasis  was  laid  almost  wholly  on  labora- 
tory instruction,  with  little  apparent  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  outlook  on  the  science,  got  from  laboratory  work  alone,  must 
be  somewhat  fragmentary ;  there  was  not  available  the  amount  of 
time  necessary  for  the  large  number  of  individual  experiments 


LABORATORY  METHODS  451 

which  would  cover  the  field  satisfactorily.  The  change  was  too 
radical  indeed;  in  1897  Harvard  modified  its  specifications  as  to  the 
form  of  elementary  physics  which  it  would  recognize,  laying  more 
stress  upon  text  discussions  and  lecture  demonstrations.  (4 :  151) 

This  quotation  shows  the  recent  development  of  laboratory 
work  in  high-school  physics,  and  the  influence  of  college- 
entrance  requirements  upon  that  work.  A  similar  situation 
and  development  would  be  found  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
the  other  sciences.  The  quotation  also  suggests  the  danger 
of  abuse  and  overemphasis  of  laboratory  exercises,  which  will 
be  considered  at  greater  length  at  other  points  in  the  chapter. 


T  tc-uotr  .,.  At  g*.     Jam  tl ,    u  ",iV  ,-.  .  ? 

tube  .koul  3)  cui.  Juj^f.  «,d  dra.u  oul  UH!  '', 


FIRST  TYPE  OF  LABORATORY  NOTEBOOK  IN  CHEMISTRY 
Approved  report  contains  bare  statement  of  results 

Exercise  care  in  selecting  laboratory  manual. — The  char- 
acter of  the  laboratory  instructions  which  an  inexperienced 
teacher  gives  will  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  nature 
of  the  textbook  and  the  laboratory  manual  which  he  uses ; 
hence  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  choosing  the  latter, 
and  the  same  methods  should  be  followed  as  were  described 
for  the  choosing  of  textbooks  on  page  42 1 .  The  high-school 
teacher  should  avoid  especially  the  danger  of  using  the  same 
type  of  manual  as  he  used  when  a  student  in  the  university 
classes.  Some  of  the  chief  defects  of  high-school  laboratory 


452 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


work  have  been  due  to  the  practice  of  carrying  the  highly 
specialized  laboratory  exercises  of  the  university  down  into 
the  courses  for  young  students  in  high  school. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  four  methods  of  writ- 
ing up  the  results  of  experiments.  The  relative  values  of 
the  four  methods  and  other  related  questions  are  discussed 
by  Greer  in  an  article  on  the  teaching  of  chemistry  in  high 
schools,  from  which  the  illustrations  are  taken  (3). 


SECOND  TYPE  OF  LABORATORY  NOTEBOOK  IN  CHEMISTRY 
Page  subdivided  for  six  phases  of  the  report 

Sample  suggestions  concerning  laboratory  instruction.  —  In 
some  of  the  books  which  deal  with  the  teaching  of  the  special 
sciences,  suggestive  directions  for  the  organization  of  labora- 
tory work  are  found  and  should  be  read  by  prospective  teachers 
of  the  subjects  in  question.  As  a  brief  example  I  quote  the 
following  from  Mill's  discussion  of  the  teaching  of  chemistry: 

Suggestions  as  to  laboratory  work.  —  i .  The  laboratory  course 
should  be  designed  to  increase  the  pupil's  interest  in  his  work,  to 


LABORATORY  METHODS 


453 


THIRD  TYPE  OF   LABORATORY  NOTEBOOK  IN  CHEMISTRY 
Topical  report  required  as  in  the  second  type 


FOURTH  TYPE  OF  NOTEBOOK  IN  CHEMISTRY 
Independent  formulation  and  interpretation  by  the  student 


454  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

increase  his  power  to  see,  think,  and  do  for  himself,  and  to  make 
him  acquainted  with  the  chemicals,  methods  of  manipulation,  re- 
actions, and  laws  at  first  hand. 

2.  Have  the  pupil  keep  a  laboratory  notebook,  and  insist  on 
the  use  of  reasonably  good  English,  on  neatness,  and  on  clearness, 
and  that  all  entries  shall  be  made  when  the  experiment  is  performed. 
Full  directions,  some  explanations,  and  questions  are  useful  in  the 
laboratory  manual,  but  strictly  guiding  subheads  are  to  be  avoided. 
A  loose-leaf  system  is  an  advantage. 

3.  The  attention  of  the  teacher  must  be  given  repeatedly  to 
each  individual  student  while  in  the  laboratory. 

4.  Some  problems  should  accompany  the  course  in  chemistry. 
These  problems  should  always  be  practical  and  should  be  made 
more  of  a  laboratory  than  a  classroom  exercise. 

5.  Do  not  have  much  exact  measurement.  A  student  may  meas- 
ure a  thing  exactly  and  know  nothing  about  it ;  in  fact,  his  mind 
is  easily  diverted  from  the  real  problem  to  the  mechanical  details 
of  the  measurement.  Some  science  courses  have  been  aptly  called 
"  starvation  courses  in  measurements." 

6.  Sacrifice  some  of  the  experiments  in  the  book  for  some  more 
nearly  "  homemade."    The  added  interest  will  repay  the  trouble. 

7.  Make  the  student  think,  but  do  not  expect  him  to  rediscover 
chemical  laws  or  to  prove  them.    A  little  consideration  of  any  law 
will  probably  show  you  that  you  could  not,  if  turned  loose  in  the 
best  chemical  laboratory  in  the  country,  prove  the  law  in  six  months. 
Let  the  experiments  illustrate  the  laws ;  they  will  help  the  student 
to  remember  and  to  understand  them. 

8.  Sometimes  the  student  gets  more  results  than  he  can  take 
care  of.  He  may  not  select  the  one  that  you  had  in  mind.  Do  not 
expect  him  always  to  draw  your  conclusion  without  your  assistance 
from  an  experiment  assigned  by  you.    (7:  194-195) 

Principles  of  previous  chapters  apply. — Most  of  the  prob- 
lems concerning  the  conduct  of  laboratory  work  fall  under  the 
general  principles  of  instruction  which  we  considered  in  previ- 
ous chapters.  The  most  important  of  these  principles  for  our 
present  purpose  are  those  concerning  (i)  the  selection  of  sub- 
ject matter,  (2)  economy  in  management,  (3)  acquiring  motor 


LABORATORY  METHODS  455 

skill,  (4)  reflective  thinking.  We  shall  discuss  briefly  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  to  the  conduct  of  laboratory  exercises. 

Adapt  laboratory  exercises  to  broader  social  needs.  —  The 
adaptation  of  the  subject  matter  of  laboratory  instruction  to 
the  contemporary  social  needs  of  the  various  classes  of  stu- 
dents to  be  found  in  high  schools  would  necessitate  relating 
the  experimentation  very  definitely  to  processes  that  play  a 
large  part  in  the  practical  affairs  of  ordinary  people.  In 
botany  and  zoology  this  would  eliminate  a  large  amount  of 
the  study  of  structure  that  has  been  so  prominent  in  the 
past,  and  would  lead  to  an  emphasis  upon  the  conditions  of 
growth,  physiological  conditions,  and  the  propagation,  care, 
and  uses  of  the  plants  and  animals.  In  physics  it  would  re- 
sult in  the  emphasis  upon  experimentation  with  machines, 
with  simple  electrical  devices  such  as  bells  and  telephones, 
with  practical  applications  of  heat,  etc.  In  chemistry,  em- 
phasis would  fall  upon  the  reproduction  in  miniature  of 
important  industrial  processes.  In  all  of  these  sciences  the 
relations  to  agriculture  often  furnish  important  points  of  con- 
tact. In  domestic  science  there  is  at  present  little  danger  of 
the  experimentation  being  unrelated  to  social  needs,  although 
in  some  schools  a  student  is  required  to  struggle  through 
several  relatively  unrelated  courses  in  chemistry  and  other 
sciences  before  she  is  permitted  to  begin  any  experimental 
manipulation  of  food  materials. 

Exercise  care  in  selection  from,  superabundance  of  material. 
—  The  problem  of  relative  values  as  applied  to  the  teaching 
of  science  has  already  been  illustrated  in  the  choice  between 
quantitative  and  qualitative  studies  in  physics  (see  above, 
p.  71).  To  be  sure,  the  use  of  the  instruments  of  measure- 
ment employed  in  physical  research  would  have  some  value  for 
students,  but  the  greater  value  of  other  activities  is  suggested 
by  Hoadley  in  the  following  quotation  : 

With  a  superabundance  of  excellent  material  within  the  scope 
ef  elementary  physics,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  valid  reason  for 


456  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

spending  the  first  days  in  the  laboratory  on  manipulation  and  meas- 
urement with  vernier  and  micrometer  calipers,  the  diagonal  scale, 
the  spherometer,  etc.,  as  is  sometimes  done  with  no  physics  in  sight. 

The  more  simply  and  directly  a  physical  problem  is  presented 
to  the  pupil  the  better,  that  his  thoughts  and  attention  may  not  be 
diverted  from  the  real  point  at  issue.  This  principle  is  especially 
applicable  in  the  early  part  of  the  laboratory  course,  where  it  is 
most  frequently  and  most  seriously  violated  by  the  use  of  micro- 
metric  instruments,  the  Jolly  balance,  etc.,  in  the  work  on  density 
and  specific  gravity,  even  before  the  pupil  has  had  practice  in  the 
simpler  methods  of  measuring  and  weighing.  It  would  seem  as  if 
the  express  purpose  of  such  work  were  at  the  outset  to  throw  as 
many  obstacles  in  the  way  of  progress  in  physics  as  the  ingenuity 
of  teachers  and  instrument-makers  could  devise. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  illustration  of  what  should  not  be 
done  in  this  respect  is  afforded  by  the  familiar  quantitative  experi- 
ments on  the  breaking  strength  of  wires  and  on  elasticity  of 
stretching,  bending,  and  twisting.  These  experiments  lead  ab- 
solutely to  nothing  in  most  high-school  courses.  The  laws  with 
which  they  deal  are,  for  the  most  part,  not  considered  in  elemen- 
tary textbooks.  (10:  15-16) 

The  same  type  of  argument  would  apply  to  all  the  other 
sciences  in  which  there  is  an  equal  superabundance  of  mate- 
rial with  equal  necessity  of  exercising  care  in  the  selection 
of  laboratory  exercises  that  are  relatively  the  most  valuable. 

Relate  experimentation  to  a  few  large  topics  or  problems. 
—  The  desirability  of  emphasizing  a  few  large  topics  in  ex- 
perimentation is  set  forth  by  Mann  as  follows,  with  particular 
reference  to  physics : 

Experience  has  taught  us  that  the  average  teacher  of  physics  is 
liable  to  err  in  requiring  the  class  to  study  too  many  topics  and  do 
too  many  experiments.  The  result  of  such  an  error  is  that  the  pupils 
become  confused  and  also  acquire  careless  habits  in  the  use  of  the 
apparatus  and  the  making  of  measurements.  (4  :  175) 

Not  only  is  there  danger  of  developing  poor  habits  of  ex- 
perimentation when  there  are  so  many  experiments,  but  there 


LABORATORY  METHODS  457 

is  danger  that  the  thought  aspect  of  the  work  will  be  neglected 
altogether  and  the  laboratory  activity  become  a  mere  matter 
of  hurried  manipulation. 

Adapt  to  needs,  interests,  and  capacities  of  students. — The 
arrangement  of  the  subject  matter  for  laboratory  work  in  terms 
of  the  needs,  interests,  and  capacities  of  the  high-school  stu- 
dents has  already  been  emphasized  in  the  discussion  of  the 
course  in  general  science  on  pages  85—92,  and  need  not  be 
further  elaborated  here. 

Economy  would  often  justify  substitution  of  lecture  dem- 
onstrations. —  The  second  general  principle  which  has  an 
important  bearing  upon  laboratory  teaching  is  the  principle 
of  economy  in  classroom  management.  The  application  has 
already  been  made  on  page  35.  Apart  from  the  matter  of 
economy  in  arrangement  and  manipulation  of  materials,  how- 
ever, there  is  always  a  larger  question  of  economy ;  namely, 
whether  the  same  real  experiences  could  not  be  given  more 
economically  and  effectively  by  having  the  teacher  or  a  com- 
mittee of  capable  students  demonstrate  the  experiments  before 
the  class.  In  many  cases,  where  observation  and  reflective 
thinking  about  real  situations  is  more  important  than  acquir- 
ing skill  in  manipulation,  the  demonstration  is  much  superior 
to  individual  laboratory  work.  The  time  that  is  used  by  in- 
dividual pupils  in  setting  up  apparatus  could  often  be  used 
to  much  greater  advantage  in  reflective  thought  based  on 
observation.  In  emphasizing  this  point  Thorndike  says  : 

Like  any  reform  in  education,  the  laboratory  method  has  suffered 
at  the  hands  of  its  friends,  by  being  used  indiscriminately  and  by 
being  overused.  It  is  not  scientific  to  spend  two  hours  in  learning 
by  manipulation  of  instruments  something  which  could  be  better 
learned  in  two  minutes  by  thought.  Washing  bottles,  connecting 
electric  wires,  and  putting  away  test  tubes,  though  doubtless  useful 
tasks  in  connection  with  scientific  housewifery,  are  not  magical 
sources  of  intellectual  growth.  Nor  is  it  safe  to  disregard  what  is 
taught,  so  long  as  it  is  taught  as  an"  exercise  in  scientific  method. 


458  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

A  laboratory  should  teach  facts  important  in  themselves.  It  is  dis- 
astrous to  scientific  habits  in  the  young  for  them  to  find  repeatedly 
that  elaborate  experimental  work  brings  at  the  end  some  trivial  or 
meaningless  result  (9:  178) 

Avoid  highly  specialized  forms  of  motor  skill. — The  acqui- 
sition of  skill  in  manipulating  special  forms  of  apparatus  and 
special  materials  is  important  in  some  sciences  for  some 
pupils,  but  not  so  important  in  others.  Thus,  the  manipulation 
of  dough  for  bread  or  for  pie  crust  is  an  important  factor  in 
learning  how  to  make  these  materials,  which  is  one  of  the 
important  aims  of  the  laboratory  work  in  domestic  science. 
In  other  cases,  however,  the  type  of  manipulation  required 
in  the  laboratory  is  so  highly  specialized  that  it  will  probably 
not  be  used  by  many  of  the  students  outside  of  the  classroom 
—for  example,  bending  and  blowing  glass,  which  is  a  factor  in 
chemical  laboratories,  and  dissection,  which  is  a  factor  in  bio- 
logical laboratories.  It  is  a  mistake  to  overemphasize  in  high 
school  such  laboratory  exercises  as  require  a  type  of  manual 
skill  that  will  seldom  be  used  elsewhere  by  most  of  the  students. 

Student's  understanding  may  greatly  exceed  his  skill,  — 
Furthermore,  a  student  may  understand  the  principles  of  a 
machine  or  of  the  operation  of  a  piece  of  apparatus  and  still 
be  very  deficient  in  ability  to  manipulate  them.  For  example, 
in  college  I  succeeded  fairly  well  in  the  theoretical  part  of  a 
course  in  organic  chemistry,  but  the  apparatus  which  I  con- 
structed for  making  organic  preparations  was  the  laughing- 
stock of  the  laboratory.  Similarly,  I  had  no  difficulty  with 
the  principles  and  problems  of  magnetism  and  electricity,  but 
a  dynamo  was  always  for  me  simply  a  terrible,  confused  tangle 
of  wires,  the  actual  construction  of  which  I  never  mastered. 

Principles  of  practice  require  careful  supervision  of  manipu- 
lation. —  If  certain  forms  of  motor  skill  are  to  be  acquired 
in  the  laboratory,  however,  the  general  principles  laid  down 
in  Chapters  VI  and  VIII  on  motor  skill  and  practice  should 
be  applied.  It  is  especially  important  that  the  teacher  give 


LABORATORY  METHODS  459 

all  the  time  that  he  possibly  can  to  getting  individual  students 
started  right  in  their  construction,  dissection,  or  drawing. 
This  is  important  not  only  from  the  standpoint  of  avoiding 
the  beginning  of  bad  habits  but  also  from  the  standpoint  of 
saving  the  student's  time.  The  laboratory  teacher  should  be 
especially  skilled  in  making  suggestions  and  asking  questions. 
He  should  be  present  and  actually  instructing  individuals  all 
the  time.  We  need  the  same  corrective  for  unsupervised, 
undirected  laboratory  work  as  is  involved  in  the  substitution 
of  supervised  study  for  home  study.  The  same  type  of  skill 
in  teaching  is  required  for  the  proper  supervision  of  labora- 
tory work  as  for  the  supervision  of  individuals  who  are  study- 
ing (see  p.  412). 

For  reflective  thinking  laboratory  exercises  must  grow  out 
of  problems.  —  The  consideration  of  laboratory  methods  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  extent  to  which  they  involve  reflective 
thinking  by  the  students  is  the  most  important  aspect  of  the 
topic,  since  laboratory  exercises  are  supposed  to  contribute 
essentially  to  the  reflective,  scientific  study  of  the  subject  in 
which  they  are  found.  That  laboratory  exercises  commonly 
fail  to  do  this  is  asserted  by  Dewey  in  the  following  quotation  : 

A  student  may  acquire  laboratory  methods  as  so  much  isolated 
and  final  stuff,  just  as  he  may  so  acquire  material  from  a  textbook. 
One's  mental  attitude  is  not  necessarily  changed  just  because  he 
engages  in  certain  physical  manipulations  and  handles  certain  tools 
and  materials.  .  .  .  This  problem  of  turning  laboratory  technique 
to  intellectual  account  is  even  more  pressing  than  that  of  utilization 
of  information  derived  from  books.  Almost  every  teacher  has  had 
drummed  into  him  the  inadequacy  of  mere  book  instruction,  but  the 
conscience  of  most  is  quite  at  peace  if  only  pupils  are  put  through 
some  laboratory  exercises.  (1:  125) 

Following  recipes  is  not  scientific  experimentation.  —  If  a 
teacher  will  consider  for  a  moment  the  part  played  by  experi- 
mentation in  scientific  procedure,  he  will  realize  that  the  ordi- 
nary laboratory  exercises  do  not  bear  anything  like  the  same 


460  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

sort  of  relation  to  the  student's  thinking.  In  scientific  inves- 
tigations the  scientist  who  is  at  work  upon  some  problem 
advances  some  theory  or  hypothesis  to  solve  it,  and  in  order 
to  test  or  verify  the  hypothesis  sometimes  devises  experiments 
which  will  do  so.  That  is,  he  says,  "  Probably  such  and  such 
a  factor  is  the  one  I  am  searching  for;  let  me  produce  it 
under  certain  definite  controlled  conditions  and  see  if  the  ex- 
pected results  follow."  How  different  this  general  process  is 
from  the  activity  of  the  student  who  is  carrying  out  certain 
directions  for  manipulating  apparatus  and  materials,  just  as 
a  cook  would  proceed  to  follow  a  new  recipe.  Like  the  cook 
the  student  acquires  some  information  and  some  skill  in 
manipulation ;  but  if  he  is  to  do  any  scientific  thinking,  his 
laboratory  practice  should  develop  as  a  means  of  assisting  in 
the  solution  of  problems. 

Freely  merge  disctission,  laboratory  exercises,  and  interpre- 
tation. —  Obviously,  high-school  students  cannot  be  expected 
to  discover  the  hypotheses  and  the  experiments  for  verifying 
them  that  it  took  expert  scientific  specialists  years  to  discover. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  introduce  laboratory  exercises  in  a 
way  that  will  require  more  reflective  thinking  than  commonly 
occurs  in  the  ordinary  recipe-following  method.  A  suggestion 
of  how  this  may  be  done  in  physics  is  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing quotation  from  a  discussion  by  Professor  Mann. 

It  is  generally  better  to  introduce  a  topic  by  means  of  informal 
discussion  with  the  class  concerning  familiar  experiences.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  topic  is  specific  gravity,  the  knowledge  already  in  the 
possession  of  the  class  should  first  be  called  forth  by  means  of 
questions  concerning  their  experiences  with  floating  and  sinking  of 
such  familiar  things  as  their  own  bodies,  chips,  corks,  logs,  cream, 
ice,  stones,  nails,  lead  keels,  fishing  sinkers,  etc. 

When  the  principle  or  idea  under  discussion  has  been  brought 
out  by  such  discussion,  it  should  be  defined  or  demonstrated  by 
one  or  more  experiments  and  then  fixed  by  requiring  the  solution 
of  a  number  of  simple,  real,  concrete  problems.  If  the  class  work 


LABORATORY  METHODS  461 

has  been  skillfully  conducted,  a  number  of  problems  or  disputes 
will  have  arisen  of  a  sort  that  can  be  settled  only  by  making 
experiments  and  measurements. 

The  laboratory  is  the  place  in  which  to  settle  such  problems  and 
disputes.  In  the  ideal  case  the  results  of  each  laboratory  experi- 
ment will  solve  some  problem  or  settle  some  dispute,  and  the  more 
concrete  and  significant  the  problem  or  the  dispute,  the  greater  the 
value  of  the  work.  For  example,  the  pupils  will  probably  get  much 
more  valuable  training  from  the  laboratory  work  in  specific  gravity 
if  they  be  shown  first  a  rectangular  block  of  oak  and  be  asked  who 
can  predict  how  high  it  will  float  out  of  the  water,  than  if  the  ex- 
periment is  presented  in  the  usual  way,  namely,  "  Find  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  rectangular  solid  body  lighter  than  water."  In  the  first 
case  a  problem  is  presented,  measurement  is  required  for  its  solu- 
tion, and  the  competitive  sense  is  appealed  to ;  in  the  second  case 
there  is  no  problem  that  has  any  significance  to  the  pupils. 

When  the  laboratory  is  used  as  a  court  of  appeal  where  disputed 
points  can  be  settled,  the  work  there  helps  to  fix  in  mind  and  to 
clarify  principles,  besides  giving  discipline  in  scientific  thinking ; 
but  when  it  is  used  merely  to  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  a 
body  heavier  than  water,  or  that  of  a  body  lighter  than  water  with 
a  sinker,  or  of  a  liquid  with  a  pycnometer,  or  of  a  liquid  by  Hare's 
method,  etc.,  the  work  tends  to  give  training  in  little  besides  the 
technique  of  the  physicist.  The  work  of  the  high  school  is  to  edu- 
cate boys  and  girls,  not  to  train  research  physicists. 

Since  the  laboratory  is  the  place  to  solve  problems  that  cannot 
be  solved  without  experiment  and  measurement,  the  most  fruitful 
type  of  experiment  is  the  one  whose  result  is  not  known  in  ad- 
vance. The  attempt  to  determine  physical  constants  whose  values 
are  known  with  far  greater  accuracy  than  it  is  possible  to  hope 
for  in  an  elementary  laboratory  is,  to  say  the  least,  discouraging. 
Thus,  the  theoretical  mechanical  advantage  of  an  inclined  plane  or 
of  a  set  of  pulleys  is  known  in  advance ;  but  the  actual  efficiency 
of  a  given  plane  or  pulley  is  not  known  but  depends  on  how  the 
machines  are  handled.  If  the  student  is  asked  "What  is  the 
greatest  efficiency  of  this  inclined  plane  ?  Is  it  greater  with  large 
load  or  with  small  load  ? "  he  will  probably  get  far  more  real 
training  from  his  work  than  he  will  if  asked  to  "  verify  the  law  of 


462  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  inclined  plane."  In  the  former  case  he  has  a  problem  to  solve, 
and  the  solution  depends  on  what  he  is  able  to  make  the  plane  do ; 
in  the  latter  case  he  has  to  make  his  results  tally  with  the  theory. 
Other  similar  problems  that  lead  to  significant  and  valuable 
laboratory  work  are :  What  is  the  maximum  efficiency  of  a  small 
water  motor  ?  Which  kind  of  gas  burner  is  most  efficient  on  cook 
stoves  ?  Which  boy's  electric  motor  is  most  efficient  ?  How  much 
more  efficient  is  a  tungsten  lamp  than  a  carbon  lamp  ?  What  kind 
of  lens  shall  I  get  for  a  camera  for  making  pictures  for  lantern 
slides?  (4:  171-173) 

This  quotation  suggests  the  desirability  of  closely  connect- 
ing the  laboratory  exercises  with  the  general  class  discussion 
of  a  topic.  Where  it  is  possible  to  administer  it,  the  discus- 
sions, laboratory  exercises,  and  further  interpretative  dis- 
cussions should  merge  into  each  other  freely.  If  this  is 
done,  the  experimentation  can  be  arranged  at  the  psycho- 
logical moment  instead  of  falling  upon  separate  laboratory 
days.  Such  close  correlation  of  discussion  and  experimenta- 
tion does  not  mean  that  the  teacher  would  put  the  class  to 
work  on  exercises  without  having  the  laboratory  materials 
definitely  prepared  and  in  order.  It  does  mean,  however, 
that  definitely  planned  discussions,  which  raise  certain  defi- 
nite problems,  would  precede  the  definitely  planned  labora- 
tory exercises,  and  that  the  first  ten  minutes  of  a  period  might 
be  spent  in  discussions,  the  next  twenty  minutes  in  experi- 
ments, and  the  next  ten  minutes  in  further  interpretative  dis- 
cussions. Sometimes  these  discussions  might  be  carried  on 
with  the  whole  class,  sometimes  with  a  small  group  while 
the  rest  of  the  class  continued  experimenting,  and  sometimes 
with  individuals. 

Apply  previous  chapter  concerning  acquiring  abstract  ideas. 
—  Sometimes  laboratory  exercises  are  arranged  primarily  to 
acquaint  students  with  certain  phenomena  as  the  basis  of 
understanding  new  abstract  terms,  such  as  acceleration,  acid 
and  base,  osmosis,  etc.  In  such  instruction  the  general 


LABORATORY  METHODS  463 

principles  discussed  in  connection  with  the  acquiring  of  ab- 
stract and  general  ideas  should  be  applied  and  should  be 
reviewed  at  this  time  (see  pp.  205-225). 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  laboratory  methods.  —  This 
will  conclude  our  brief  discussion  of  a  few  aspects  of  the 
laboratory  method.  The  general  enthusiasm  for  laboratory 
work  has  often  blinded  teachers  to  the  fact  that  it  commonly 
wastes  a  great  deal  of  time  in  processes  of  routine  manipula- 
tion which  give  the  students  little  useful  information  and  no 
training  in  scientific  thinking.  If  the  latter  are  to  be  secured, 
the  experimentation  should  grow  out  of  discussions  of  prob- 
lems that  are  related  to  practical  issues  in  the  world  at  large, 
and  interpretative  discussions  should  be  closely  connected 
with  all  experiments  and  observations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  DEWEY,  JOHN.     Science   as   Subject   Matter   and   as    Method. 
Science,  January  28,  1910,  N.S.,  Vol.  XXXI,  pp.  121-127.    Empha- 
sizes securing  reflective  thinking  in  laboratory  exercises  instead  of  merely 
routine  manipulation. 

2.  DEWEY,  JOHN.    How  We  Think.   (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1910.) 
Pp.  150-156.    Shows  part  played  by  experimentation  in  scientific  in- 
quiry. 

3.  GREEK,  W.  C.  The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  in  Secondary  Schools. 
School  Review,  1906,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  282-286.  Discusses  laboratory  note- 
books. 

4.  KESTER,  F.  E.   Physics,  in  C.  H.  Johnson's  High-School  Educa- 
tion. (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1912.)  Pp.  146-182,  478-481.   Contains 
bibliography. 

5.  LLOYD,  F.  E.,  and  BIGELOW,  M.  A.    The  Teaching  of  Biology. 
(Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1904.)  Pp.  209-228,  294-319.  Contains  many 
general  suggestions  applicable  in  other  sciences. 

6.  MANN,  C.  R.    The  Teaching  of  Physics.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1912.)  Pp.  246-269.  Contains  many  suggestions  based  on  Dewey's 
theories  of  teaching. 

7.  MILLS,  J.  E.    Chemistry,  in  C.  H.  Johnson's  High-School  Edu- 
cation.  (Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1912.)   Pp.  183-197,  481-484.    Con- 
tains bibliography. 


464  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

8.  STEVENS,  R.    Stenographic  Reports  of  High-School  Lessons. 
Teachers    College  Record,    September,   1910,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  265-276. 
Report  of  a  domestic  science  lesson. 

9.  THORNDIKE,    E.  L.    Education.   (The     Macmillan    Company, 
1912.)   Pp.  175-179.  1 93-I96- 

10.  WOODHULL,  J.  F.    The  Teaching  of  Physical  Science.    Teachers 
College  Record,  January,  1910,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  1-82.    Excellent  discussion 
of  studying  important  practical  issues  in  physics.    Contains  quotations 
from  prefaces  of  many  physics  textbooks  concerning  place  of  labora- 
tory work. 

1 1 .  Twiss,  G.  R.     The  Teaching  of  Science  (The  MacMillan  Com- 
pany, 1917.)    Chap.  viii. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XIX,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E  235-E  240. 

FINAL  EXAMINATION 

For  suggestions  for  the  conduct  of  the  final  examination  in  a  course 
using  this  textbook,  plus  a  list  of  1 50  pages  of  the  text  which  might  well 
be  reviewed  for  such  an  examination,  see  Exercises  for  "Methods  of 
Teaching  in  High  Schools,'1'1  pp.  E  232-E  234. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i.  Skilled  questioning  demands  of 
the  teacher  clear  and  rapid  thinking,  a  keen  sense  of  relative  values, 
and  ability  in  wording  questions. 

2.  Many  points  in  the  technique  of  questioning  depend  upon  re- 
garding the  recitation  as  primarily  a  place  for  group  thought,  not  as 
a  place  for  the  pursuit  or  prolonged  assistance  of  individual  students. 

3.  For  routine  drills,  such  as  those  in  algebra  and  the  study  of 
a  foreign  language,  devices  should  be  adopted  that  will  speed  up 
the  process,  while  for  recitations  involving  reflective  thinking,  slow, 
thoughtful  questioning  should  prevail. 

4.  In  general,  teachers  should  avoid  practices  in  questioning 
that  do  not  place  a  premium  upon  concentrated  attention  by  all 
members  of  the  class.   Many  devices  and  mannerisms  come  under 
this  head. 

A  few  special  points  of  technique  to  supplement  previous 
principles.  —  The  art  of  questioning  is  an  important  factor  in 
all  types  of  recitations  as  well  as  in  the  directions  prepared  as 
guides  to  studying  or  to  the  interpretation  of  laboratory  exer- 
cises. In  conversational  methods  skilled  questioning  is  the 
most  important  element  in  securing  educative  results,  while 
in  recitations  based  upon  assigned  readings  there  are  large 
opportunities  to  secure  superior  results  through  skilled  ques- 
tioning which  stimulates  interpretation,  evaluation,  and  appli- 
cation of  the  points  studied  in  the  assignments.  Skill  in 
questioning  will  depend  to  a  very  large  extent  upon  the 
efficiency  with  which  the  teacher  applies  the  general  prin- 
ciples previously  discussed,  but  there  are  a  few  special  points 
of  technique  which  we  shall  discuss  briefly  in  this  chapter. 

465 


466  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  use  of  questions  to  test  whether  students  have  pre- 
pared or  mastered  certain  material  may  be  distinguished  from 
questioning  which  is  intended  to  stimulate  and  guide  their 
thinking  along  new  lines.  To  do  either  of  these  well  requires 
special  skill.  The  principles  governing  the  stimulation  and 
direction  of  reconstructive  thinking  by  students  have  been 
thoroughly  discussed,  particularly  in  the  chapter  on  reflective 
thinking  and  in  the  one  on  self-activity  and  apperception. 
The  special  technique  of  testing  will  be  discussed  in  a  later 
chapter.  In  view  of  these  facts  we  shall  not  provide  here 
special  discussions  from  each  of  these  points  of  view. 

Skilled  questioning  demands  rapid  adaptation  on  part  of 
teacher.  —  A  teacher  who  is  conducting  a  recitation  is  in  a 
very  complicated  situation  and  is  adapting  his  responses  to  a 
great  many  rapidly  changing  elements.  This  is  true  even  when 
he  is  merely  conducting  an  oral  quiz  to  determine  whether 
assigned  readings  have  been  mastered.  The  situation  is 
vastly  more  complicated  when  he  is  conducting  a  recitation 
that  permits  or  requires  a  large  amount  of  reconstructive  or 
original  thinking  by  the  students.  He  never  knows  just  what 
.move  to  expect ;  hence  he  must  be  constantly  alert  and  quick 
to  devise  appropriate  questions. 

Pedagogical  experts  are  apt  to  be  overcritical  of  the  ques- 
tioning that  is  done  in  recitations  which  they  have  observed. 
From  the  calm  and  peaceful  positions  in  their  pedagogical 
armchairs  they  show  how  it  could  have  been  improved  in 
this  way  and  in  that.  Such  criticisms  often  fail  to  take  ac- 
count of  the  complicated  series  of  rapidly  shifting  responses 
which  a  teacher  has  to  give  if  he  is  really  making  the  lesson 
go.  Speaking  as  one  who  has  never  been  able  to  develop  any 
inside  feeling  of  self-possession  before  a  class,  I  would  say 
that  much  of  the  questioning  which  is  held  up  to  severe  criti- 
cism when  viewed  in  a  stenographic  report  appears  to  me  to 
be  very  good  when  considered  in  the  light  of  the  rapid  shift- 
ing of  attention  and  emphasis  that  the  teacher  was  required 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  467 

to  make  as  the  responses  of  the  students  came  forth.  Such 
a  view,  however,  does  not  justify  regarding  questioning  care- 
lessly, but,  on  the  contrary,  tends  to  emphasize  the  necessity 
of  the  most  careful  study  of  the  art  of  questioning. 

Requires  clear  thinking,  sense  of  relative  values,  and  skill 
in  wording  questions.  —  Among  the  chief  elements  at  the 
basis  of  a  teacher's  success  in  questioning  are  the  follow- 
ing:  (i)  clear  and  rapid  thinking,  (2)  a  constant  feeling  for 
relative  values,  and  (3)  skill  in  expression,  particularly  in 
wording  questions. 

1 .  Clear  and  rapid  thinking.  —  Clear  thinking  in  a  given 
line  may  be  attained  by  many  teachers  if  they  become  suffi- 
ciently well  acquainted  with  the  subject.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, some  persons  always  remain  muddled,  tangled  thinkers, 
no  matter  how  much  they  know ;  they  always  fail  to  make 
clear-cut  distinctions,  comparisons,  and  classifications.    As  a 
consequence  they  will  always  be  relatively  poor  questioners. 
When  we  add  rapidity  to  the  requirement  of  clearness  in 
thinking,  many  more  persons  are  eliminated  from  the  possi- 
bility of  achieving  great  success  in  conducting  recitations. 
Slow,  clear  thinkers  might  prepare  excellent  written  ques- 
tions or  directions  for  studying  or  for  interpreting  laboratory 
exercises,  but  in  many  recitations  they  would  get  relatively 
poor  results. 

2.  Sense  of  relative  values. — A  keen  sense  for  relative 
values  enables  the  self-possessed  teacher  to  determine  quickly, 
with  a  nice  discrimination,  just  what  use  to  make  of  each 
answer  or  response  given  in  a  recitation.    Shall  it  be  empha- 
sized and  followed  up,  or  merely  accepted  but  passed  over,  or 
criticized  but  modified  so  as  to  lead  on  to  something  more 
valid  ?    Here  again  thorough  knowledge  of  the  related  field 
helps  in  achieving  success,  though  many  fail  who  have  vast 
knowledge  but  little  sense  of  relative  values  and  possibilities. 

3.  Skill  in  wording  questions.  —  Skill   in  expression  is 
especially  important  in  the  wording  of  questions.   A  teacher 


468  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

may  have  the  other  two  qualifications,  namely,  rapid,  clear 
thinking  and  a  sense  of  relative  values,  and  fail  to  word 
questions  well.  A  person  may  even  be  an  excellent  lecturer 
and  still  be  a  poor  questioner,  which  shows  that  skill  not 
merely  in  expression  but  in  a  special  kind  of  expression, 
namely,  the  wording  of  questions,  is  necessary.  Such  skill 
requires  not  only  clear  thinking  and  a  good  command  of 
language,  but  also  the  ability  to  estimate  quickly  just  what  is 
the  condition  of  the  student's  mind  and  just  what  stimulus 
is  needed  to  set  it  operating  in  a  certain  direction. 

Thus  we  see  that  skill  in  questioning  in  recitations  requires 
all  of  the  preparation  and  alertness  that  a  teacher  can  bring  to 
bear  upon  the  situation.  Preparation  can  easily  be  provided 
for,  but  alertness  is  more  a  matter  of  fundamental  tempera- 
ment, though  it  can  be  cultivated  to  a  certain  extent.  Prepara- 
tion of  questions  in  advance  of  the  recitation  is  one  of  the 
chief  points  in  the  planning  of  lessons  ;  this  will  be  discussed 
in  a  later  chapter. 

The  recitation  as  a  place  for  group  progress  determines 
technique.  —  Several  of  the  special  points  of  technique  in  ques- 
tioning depend  upon  regarding  recitations  primarily  as  periods 
for  group  thought  and  group  progress,  the  periods  of  super- 
vised study  being  primarily  the  places  for  individual  thought 
and  progress  and  for  assisting  individual  pupils  in  their 
peculiar  difficulties.  If  this  distinction  is  kept  in  mind,  a 
number  of  detailed  considerations  may  be  easily  disposed  of. 

Address  questions  to  the  group.  —  In  the  first  place,  ques- 
tions should  be  addressed  to  the  whole  group,  and  the  whole 
group  should  be  expected  to  take  an  interest  in  replying  and 
endeavoring  to  get  ready  to  reply.  The  opposite  condition  is 
very  common,  where  each  question  is  addressed  to  an  indi- 
vidual pupil  whose  name  is  given  before  the  question  is  asked. 
Thus,  in  college  and  high-school  classes  many  teachers,  who 
are  quite  proud  of  themselves  but  who  have  no  correct  ideas 
of  method,  proceed  as  follows :  "  Now,  Mr.  Smith,  what  is  the 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  469 

difference  between,"  etc.  Mr.  Smith  then  braces  himself  for 
the  attack,  while  the  rest  of  the  students  look  on  and  enjoy 
his  discomfiture,  with  no  thought  that  they  are  responsible 
for  thinking  up  answers  to  the  questions  addressed  to  poor 
Smith.  Needless  to  say,  the  question  should  be  propounded, 
then  sufficient  time  given  for  part  of  the  group  to  get  the 
necessary  thinking  done,  and  then  some  student  called  upon 
to  answer. 

Do  not  call  upon  students  in  fixed  order.  —  The  same 
principle  would  rule  out  the  practice  of  calling  upon  students 
in  a  fixed  order.  Yet  many  instructors  follow  the  order  in 
which  students  are  seated,  or  in  which  the  names  come  in  a 
class  list  or  upon  class  cards.  If  the  teacher  can't  do  any 
better,  he  can  at  least  put  the  names  on  cards  and  shuffle 
these  before  each  recitation.  This  will  provide  a  definite 
chance  basis  until  a  number  of  students  have  been  called 
upon.  Occasional  calling  upon  some  of  these  for  a  second 
time  during  the  recitation  would  tend  to  keep  students  from 
relapsing  after  they  have  had  their  first  turn  by  chance. 

Secure  fair  distribution  of  questions  by  some  device.  — 
Furthermore,  in  order  that  all  members  of  the  class  may 
feel  that  they  are  expected  to  participate  at  all  stages  of  the 
recitation,  the  teacher  must  take  care  to  avoid  calling  upon 
a  few  students  too  often  and  neglecting  others.  Unless  the 
teacher  is  especially  self-possessed  or  adopts  some  device 
which  specifically  checks  this  tendency,  it  is  difficult  to 
avoid  it.  For  example,  Breslich  reports  that  a  college  student 
who  was  observing  mathematics  classes  in  a  high  school  was 

directed  to  keep  a  record  of  the  number  of  times  each  pupil  of  a 
class  was  called  upon  to  recite  during  a  number  of  days,  omitting 
recitations  where  all  pupils  went  to  the  blackboard  or  where  the 
whole  class  was  called  on  to  recite  in  order.  It  was  found  that  in 
a  first-year  class  of  twenty-two  pupils  one  student  recited  [that  is, 
was  called  upon  to  recite]  only  twice,  and  another  eleven  times,  in 
nine  days.  ...  In  a  first-year  class  of  thirteen  pupils  one  pupil  was 


470  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

questioned  only  four  times  and  another  eighteen  times.  In  a  second- 
year  class  of  fifteen  pupils  the  range  was  from  six  to  twenty-three 
recitations  during  ten  days.  (7:  153) 

Personally  I  have  considerable  difficulty  in  avoiding  this 
tendency  to  see  some  students  and  to  overlook  others.  My 
best  device  for  avoiding  it  is  to  look  over  my  list  of  students 
when  I  am  preparing  for  the  recitation,  and  to  make  written 
note  of  those  that  ought  to  be  called  upon.  If  this  memoran- 
dum is  kept  in  sight  during  the  recitation,  it  tends  to  remind 
me  to  distribute  the  questions  properly. 

Do  not  waste  class  time  assisting  or  pursuing  individuals. 
— As  noted  above,  the  time  of  the  class  should  not  be  wasted 
while  the  teacher  helps  a  slow  pupil  who  has  some  peculiar 
difficulty.  This  assistance  should  be  given  during  a  period 
for  supervised  study.  Similarly,  class  time  should  not  be 
wasted  while  the  teacher  pursues  an  individual  student  with 
questions.  If  it  is  a  small  difficulty  which  is  delaying  a  stu- 
dent who  might  otherwise  continue  his  recitation  satisfac- 
torily, let  some  other  student  or  the  teacher  help  him  out 
with  a  word.  In  violation  of  this  rule  I  have  seen  a  most 
capable  teacher  delay  a  whole  class  for  five  minutes  while 
he  tried  to  elicit  an  answer  from  one  student.  Despite  the 
frantic  appeals  of  all  of  the  other  students  to  be  permitted  to 
recite,  the  teacher  said,  "  No,  let  James  get  it,"  sincerely  be- 
lieving that  this  was  a  fine  exhibition  of  true  pedagogical  skill 
instead  of  its  being  just  the  opposite. 

Adapt  commendation  and  reproval  to  individual  differences. 
—  The  proper  distribution  of  commendation  and  reproval  for 
the  answers  of  individual  students  calls  for  fine  discrimina- 
tion and  tact  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Thus,  a  purely  im- 
personal remark  such  as  "  That 's  the  point,"  coming  after 
a  puzzling  discussion  of  a  difficult  question,  may  be  treasured 
by  a  conscientious,  timid  student  for  a  long  time  and  stimu- 
late him  to  further  endeavor,  while  in  the  case  of  a  slow, 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  471 

conscientious,  sensitive  student  who  has  missed  the  point  of  a 
question  such  an  off-hand  remark  as  "  Wake  up  "  may  rankle 
for  hours.  On  the  other  hand,  a  lazy,  callous  student  may 
require  severe  reproval.  For  example,  I  heard  an  instructor 
appropriately  stimulate  a  lazy,  inattentive  student  who  had 
given  a  careless  answer,  by  saying,  "  Mr.  Smith,  what  was 
the  question  I  asked  you  ?  Now,  what  relation  does  your 
answer  bear  to  the  question  ?  What  was  the  general  point 
which  we  were  discussing  before  I  called  on  you  ?  That  will 
do ;  sit  down  and  see  that  you  keep  track  of  the  discussion 
hereafter."  Smith  needed  about  as  vigorous  a  reminder  as 
could  be  given  him,  and  his  temperament  was  such  that  no 
hard  feelings  were  created  by  the  teacher's  rebuke.  Thus  we 
see  that  large  consideration  should  be  given  to  individual 
differences  in  bestowing  commendation  and  reproval.  In 
many  cases  nothing  more  is  needed  than  perfectly  objective 
evaluation  of  the  answers  given.  This  evaluation  may  be 
determined  by  their  acceptance  or  rejection  by  the  teacher 
or  by  the  class.  If  we  accept  the  point  of  view  expressed  by 
Dewey,  quoted  above  on  page  202,  acceptance  or  rejection  by 
the  teacher  should  play  a  smaller  part  than  it  commonly  does 
in  recitations,  and  greater  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon 
having  the  class  determine  the  value  and  validity  of  answers 
and  suggestions. 

Rapid  pace  for  drill  questions  ;  slow  pace  for  thought 
questions.  —  The  number  of  questions  asked  and  the  amount 
of  time  given  for  answering  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  mental 
activity  which  is  being  carried  on.  In  the  case  of  oral  drills 
on  vocabularies  and  on  short,  abstract  problems  in  algebra  the 
pace  should  be  very  rapid.  In  the  case  of  reflective,  analyt- 
ical study  of  a  question  in  civics  or  chemistry  the  pace  should 
be  very  slow.  There  is  room  for  improvement  in  both  types 
of  exercises.  In  rapid  drills  the  use  of  flash  cards  as  described 
above  on  page  160  provides  for  great  improvement.  In  the 
case  of  reflective  thinking  the  necessity  of  a  slower  pace  is 


472  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

emphasized  by  Miss  Stevens,  who  has  specialized  upon  the 
investigation  of  questioning.    She  says  : 

If  the  purpose  of  the  question  is  to  provoke  thought  and  evoke 
expression,  can  the  result  be  other  than  negative  when  a  teacher 
of  history  in  one  class  period  of  forty  minutes  asks  one  hundred 
and  fifty  questions  and  gets  one  hundred  and  fifty  answers,  with 
an  average  of  more  than  three  questions  and  three  answers  per 
minute  ?  With  such  breakneck  speed  what  chance  can  there  be  for 
assimilation  or  association  of  ideas  and  for  orderly  expression  ? 
(4=  7) 

Repetition  in  questioning.  As  a  general  rule  avoid  repeti- 
tion of  questions.  —  In  order  to  avoid  inattention,  questions 
should  not  be  repeated,  as  a  general  rule,  if  they  are  well 
worded  in  the  first  statement.  Sometimes,  however,  the  teacher 
can  tell,  from  the  general  puzzled  expression  upon  the  faces 
of  even  the  most  attentive  members  of  the  class,  that  the 
question  has  not  aroused  the  response  expected.  This  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  form  of  the  question  is  poor.  In 
view  of  the  difficulty  of  wording  good  questions  this  is  likely 
to  happen  now  and  then  during  the  stress  of  a  recitation. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  repeat 
the  question  in  an  improved  form.  Sometimes,  if  the  initial 
form  of  the  question  is  good  but  the  question  is  very  diffi- 
cult, the  teacher  may  repeat  it  without  modification,  just  as  a 
lecturer  repeats  an  important  statement  that  he  wants  to  em- 
phasize or  as  a  person  rereads  a  difficult  sentence  in  a  book 
in  order  to  get  its  full  meaning.  Obviously  such  repetition 
should  be  avoided  in  easy  routine  questioning  that  calls  for 
little  reflective  thinking,  and  it  should  be  infrequent  in  all 
questioning. 

Repetition  of  pupil's  answer  by  teacher  is  a  bad  mannerism. 
—  Many  teachers  fall  into  the  habit  of  repeating  the  answers 
given  by  students ;  this  is  a  harmful  mannerism  and  should 
be  corrected.  Very  often  it  is  largely  a  case  of  thinking  out 


THE  ART  OF  QUESTIONING  473 

loud ;  that  is,  while  turning  the  answer  over  in  mind  the 
teacher  repeats  it  automatically,  at  the  same  time  getting 
ready  for  the  question  that  is  to  be  based  upon  the  repeated 
answer.  This  also  tends  to  give  the  discussion  a  somewhat 
more  continuous  appearance,  since  the  waits  which  usually 
occur  while  the  teacher  thinks  up  the  next  question  are  rilled 
by  his  automatic  repetition  of  the  preceding  answer.  To  avoid 
the  danger  of  encouraging  the  students  to  be  inattentive 
to  the  one  who  is  answering,  however,  the  teacher  should 
refrain  from  repeating  the  answers.  In  rapid  routine  ques- 
tioning the  waits  are  or  should  be  eliminated  by  the  speed 
of  the  process,  while  in  reflective  questioning  and  thinking  the 
waiting  and  pondering  by  both  pupils  and  teacher  are  appro- 
priate if  all  are  seriously  concerned  with  the  problem  in  hand. 

Yes-or-no  questions  to  be  avoided  tmless  reflective  attitudes 
prevail.  —  It  is  sometimes  stated  that  questions  which  can  be 
answered  by  yes  or  no  should  be  avoided.  Like  many  of  the 
other  conventional  rules  concerning  questioning,  this  rule  is 
based  upon  the  general  conception  that  questioning  is  used 
only  to  test  a  student's  knowledge,  and  upon  situations  in 
which  the  teacher  is  trying  to  trap  the  student  and  the  student 
is  skirmishing  to  avoid  being  caught.  In  reflective  question- 
ing and  discussion  in  high-school  and  college  classes  the 
yes-or-no  question  is  very  commonly  used  effectively  if  accom- 
panied by  the  question,  Why  ?  or  by  the  direction,  "  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer."  For  examples  turn  to  pages  172 
and  210  and  examine  the  questions  quoted  there  from  the 
textbook  on  economics,  in  which  the  instruction  is  given 
largely  through  questions.  Many  of  the  questions  quoted  are 
yes-or-no  questions,  but  I  think  the  general  verdict  would  be 
that  the  effect  of  the  questions  is  to  stimulate  a  reflective 
consideration  of  the  meaning  of  the  topics  under  discussion ; 
namely,  of  wealth  and  of  the  influence  of  specialization. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  questioning.  —  In  our  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  technique  of  questioning  we  emphasized  as 


474  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

a  fundamental  fact  the  necessity  of  thorough  preparation  and 
alertness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  who  expects  to  carry  on 
effective  questioning  in  such  complicated  social  situations  as 
rapid  or  thoughtful  recitations  present.  To  succeed,  he  needs 
clear  thinking,  a  keen  sense  of  relative  values,  and  skill  in 
expressing  questions.  The  recitation  should  be  regarded  as 
primarily  a  place  for  group  thought,  and  many  of  the  details 
of  the  technique  of  questioning  should  be  determined  by  this 
attitude.  The  pace  should  be  adapted  to  the  type  of  mental 
activity  which  is  desired,  and  all  practices  which  place  a  pre- 
mium upon  inattention  should  be  avoided.  Under  this  head 
come  a  multitude  of  specific  precepts  which  thoughtful  teachers 
should  review  occasionally  and  apply  to  their  practice. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.    The  Educative  Process.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1905.)   Pp.  320,  323-327,  334. 

2.  CHARTERS,  W.  W.  Methods  of  Teaching.  (Row,  Peterson,  &  Co., 
1912.)   Pp.  296-313.    A  chapter  on  questioning. 

3.  DE  GARMO,  C.   Interest  in  Education.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1902.)   Pp.  179-204.    Long,  detailed  chapter  on  questioning. 

4.  STEVENS,  ROMIETT.    The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Efficiency 
in  Instruction.   (Teachers  College,  1912.)  An  excellent  descriptive  and 
critical  study  of  current  practices. 

5.  STRAYER,  G.  D.    The  Teaching  Process.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911.)   Pp.  114-128.    A  chapter  on  questioning. 

6.  YAMADA,  SASCHICHI.  A  study  of  questioning.  Pedagogical  Sem- 
inary, June,  1913,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  129-186.   Bibliography,  pp.  181-183, 

Quoted  incidentally  in  the  chapter 7.  BRESLICH,  E.  R.  Teaching 

High-School  Pupils  How  to  Study.    School  Review,  October,  1912, 
Vol.  XX,  pp.  505-515. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XX,  see  Exercises  for 
"Method's  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  £241 -£242. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  LESSON-PLANNING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter,  i.  Practice  teaching  should  be  care- 
fully administered  to  secure  large  profit  from  a  small  amount  of 
practice. 

2.  The  general  principles  of  practice  should  be  applied.    The 
most  important  of  these  are  the  following : 

a.  It  is  desirable  to  secure  a  correct  start ;  hence  careful  plan- 
ning is  necessary. 

b.  Distributed  practice  is  better  than  concentrated  practice. 

3.  Carefully  written  lesson  plans  should  provide  for  the  separate 
mastery  of  subject  matter  and  method. 

4.  A  carefully  organized  brief  is  a  most  important  factor  in 
mastering  and  organizing  subject  matter. 

5.  The  writing  out  of  pivotal  questions  is  an  important  step  in 
the  method  plan. 

6.  Thoroughly  organized  routine  and  mimeographed  or  printed 
directions  facilitate  the  very  difficult  process  of  supervising  practice 
teaching. 

Practice  teaching  with  adolescent  pupils  to  be  provided.  — 

In  order  that  prospective  teachers  may  be  trained  to  think  of 
teaching  in  terms  of  sound  principles  of  method,  it  is  highly 
desirable  that  some  practice  teaching  under  expert  super- 
vision should  be  provided  for  students  in  colleges  and  normal 
schools  who  expect  to  teach  in  high  schools.  There  is  very 
little  provision  in  America  for  such  practice  at  the  present 
time  (1914),  but  it  is  being  organized  in  a  number  of  univer- 
sities, and  in  a  few  decades  we  may  expect  to  see  much  more 
adequate  facilities.  In  normal  schools,  practice  teaching  is 
provided  on  a  large  scale  for  prospective  elementary-school 

475 


476  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

teachers,  and  the  same  type  of  arrangement  should  be  made 
in  liberal-arts  colleges  and  universities  for  prospective  high- 
school  teachers.  Most  practice  schools  for  such  teachers 
should  probably  be  organized  to  enroll  pupils  from  about 
twelve  to  eighteen  years  of  age,  that  is,  during  the  period 
that  is  coming  to  be  recognized  as  the  proper  period  for 
secondary  or  adolescent  education. 

Prerequisites  include  training  in  subject  matter  and  in 
education.  —  Owing  to  the  limited  facilities  for  high-school 
practice  teaching  that  will  probably  always  prevail,  and  to 
the  desirability  of  administering  the  teaching  as  efficiently 
as  possible,  it  should  be  restricted  to  college  seniors  who 
meet  certain  prerequisites.  These  should  include  several 
college  courses  in  the  subject  to  be  taught,  one  of  which 
is  a  course  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject  that  has  been 
accompanied  by  observation  in  the  high  school.  The  pre- 
requisites should  also  include  certain  courses  in  the  depart- 
ment of  education.  Every  practice  teacher  should  be  under 
strict  supervision  and  should  not  be  permitted  to  undertake 
to  teach  a  series  of  lessons  until  it  is  clear  that  he  is  thor- 
oughly prepared  not  only  in  general  but  also  for  the  particular 
series  of  lessons  and  particular  class  that  he  is  to  teach.  A 
class  of  high-school  students  is  not  material  with  which  an 
irresponsible,  unprepared  individualist  should  be  permitted 
to  experiment.  As  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  classroom 
management,  there  is  ample  scope  for  the  expression  of  spon- 
taneity, individuality,  and  reasoning  within  a  well-controlled, 
routinized  system  (see  above,  pp.  27-31). 

Emphasize  judgment  aspects  more  than  routine  aspects.  — 
In  connection  with  practice  teaching  we  may  utilize  to  advan- 
tage Bagley's  distinction  between  the  routine  and  judgment 
aspects  of  teaching,  as  we  have  already  done  in  connection 
with  classroom  management  (see  pp.  26-27).  The  routine  as- 
pects —  that  is,  the  recurring  and  relatively  unvarying  details 
of  management  —  are  very  important  in  securing  economy 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING        477 

of  time  and  effort,  but  they  can  easily  be  mastered  in  a 
relatively  short  time  by  the  teacher  who  has  had  his  attention 
focused  on  the  necessity  of  so  doing.  The  judgment  aspects 
are  those  teaching  processes  which  are  peculiarly  concerned 
with  directing  the  various  types  of  learning  so  that  they  will 
proceed  most  economically  and  effectively.  In  contrast  with 
the  routine  aspects  the  judgment  aspects  in  practice  teaching 
present  a  most  varied  and  complicated  series  of  ideas  and 
principles  of  method  to  be  mastered  theoretically  and  to  be 
used  practically  in  the  development  of  habits  of  teaching.  It 
becomes  evident  from  this  contrast  that  the  routine  aspects 
could  be  mastered  with  comparative  ease  by  a  beginning 
teacher,  although  it  might  take  several  months  to  make  the 
routine  practices  habitual.  On  the  other  hand,  efficient  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  learning  in  the  instruction  of 
various  types  of  students  calls  for  much  greater  skill  and  re- 
sourcefulness and  requires  a  much  longer  period  for  mastery. 
This  contrast  should  determine  the  relative  emphasis  in  the 
organization  of  practice  teaching.  In  the  routine  aspects  the 
practice  teacher  should  be  given  a  correct  start,  as  in  any 
other  kind  of  practice,  but  in  the  supervision  the  critic  should 
not  stress  this  phase  to  the  neglect  of  the  judgment  aspects, 
which  present  a  much  larger  range  of  possibilities  with  which 
to  familiarize  the  prospective  teacher.  The  emphasis  should 
fall  rather  upon  the  methods  of  selecting,  organizing,  and 
presenting  subject  matter,  of  organizing  proper  practices  in 
learning,  of  securing  spontaneous  interest  and  concentration 
of  attention,  and  of  supervising  study  suggestively  without 
too  much  assisting,  and  upon  methods  of  asking  questions 
and  actually  conducting  recitations  of  various  types. 

Apply  general  principles  of  practice.  Assure  a  correct  start. 
—The  general  principles  of  practice  set  forth  in  Chapter  VIII 
should  be  applied  to  practice  in  teaching  as  far  as  practi- 
cable. The  first  principle  that  applies  is  the  importance  of  se- 
curing a  correct  start.    As  far  as  possible  the  student  should 


478  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

be  prevented  from  beginning  to  use  incorrect  or  wasteful 
methods.  We  have  already  noted  the  importance  of  this 
point  from  the  standpoint  of  protecting  the  pupils  who  are 
being  practiced  upon,  and  we  now  reiterate  it  from  the  stand- 
point of  effective  training  of  the  practice  teacher  himself. 
One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  securing  a  correct  start 
is  careful  planning,  which  will  be  discussed  below. 

Distributed  periods  of  practice  are  better.  —  The  next 
question  in  applying  the  general  principles  of  practice  to 
practice  in  teaching  concerns  the  best  distribution  of  the 
time  that  is  available  for  each  practice  teacher.  After  prac- 
tice teaching  becomes  the  regular  requirement  for  prospective 
high-school  teachers,  the  facilities  which  can  be  made  avail- 
able will  permit  only  a  limited  amount  of  practice  by  each 
student.  Let  us  assume  that  it  will  be  possible  for  him  to 
teach  only  forty  lessons.  In  view  of  the  experimental  data 
given  above  on  pages  161-164,  what  would  be  the  best  dis- 
tribution of  these  lessons  ?  Would  it  be  best  to  teach  ten 
lessons  a  week -for  four  weeks,  or  five  lessons  a  week  for 
eight  weeks,  or  four  lessons  a  week  for  ten  weeks  ?  When 
we  consider  the  data  on  simple  practice  already  referred  to, 
and  take  into  account  the  fact  that  the  practice  teacher  com- 
monly has  to  put  in  two  or  three  hours  a  day  in  preparation 
for  each  lesson  which  he  teaches,  it  is  evident  that  the  prac- 
tice distributed  over  eight  or  ten  weeks  would  be  much  more 
fruitful  than  the  same  amount  of  practice  concentrated  into 
four  weeks.  Probably  even  a  wider  distribution  of  the  practice 
periods  would  be  justified. 

Establish  desirable  emotional  attitude.  —  A  third  general 
rule  of  practice  for  the  supervisor  to  apply  is  to  endeavor  to 
secure  a  favorable  emotional  tone  on  the  part  of  the  practice 
teacher.  The  elements  of  nervousness,  worry,  and  fear  of 
criticism  should  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible,  and  feelings 
of  spontaneous  interest,  pleasure,  and  satisfaction  in  success 
stimulated.  To  secure  these  emotional  conditions  at  the  same 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING       479 

time  that  he  holds  up  high  standards  of  attainment  calls  for 
great  skill  on  the  part  of  the  critic  teacher  or  supervisor. 

Special  type  of  skill  needed  for  supervision.  —  The  quali- 
ties and  efficiency  of  the  supervisor  are  most  important  factors 
in  the  successful  training  of  practice  teachers.  It  is  not  suffi- 
cient that  he  be  simply  a  good  teacher.  He  must  have  clear 
ideas  concerning  methods  of  teaching  and  be  able  to  impart 
these  ideas  to  others.  The  processes  and  responses  which 
the  beginning  teacher  must  master  are  entirely  too  compli- 
cated and  rational  to  be  mastered  merely  by  imitation.  The 
student  must  have  given  to  him  not  merely  a  good  example 
but  also  a  clear  understanding  of  the  controlling  ideas  and 
purposes,  for  he  will  not  make  much  progress  in  the  com- 
plications of  his  first  year  of  regular  teaching  if  he  has  only 
a  few  examples  to  fall  back  upon  for  suggestions.  Some 
skilled  teachers  cannot  analyze  their  own  skill  or  that  of 
others ;  hence  they  are  poor  supervisors  of  practice,  just  as 
many  skilled  athletes  make  poor  athletic  directors  or  coaches, 
as  noted  above  on  page  108.  Thus  we  see  that  skilled  super- 
vision is  a  very  difficult  matter.  A  person  may  be  a  master 
of  the  theory  of  teaching  but  not  be  able  to  apply  it  in  train- 
ing teachers  in  practice  ;  or  he  may  be  a  master  teacher  and 
not  be  able  to  analyze  skill  in  teaching ;  or,  finally,  a  person 
may  be  both  a  master  of  theory  and  a  skilled  teacher,  and 
yet  not  be  able  to  direct  practice  teachers  in  such  a  way  as 
to  develop  them.  Perhaps  the  greatest  art  in  teaching  is 
skilled  supervision  of  teachers. 

Routinized  scheme  for  administering  practice  is  desirable. 
—  The  skilled  supervisor,  or  critic  teacher,  should  have  fre- 
quent conferences  with  a  practice  teacher  to  discuss  with  him 
the  latter's  plans  as  related  to  the  fundamental  purposes  of 
the  teaching  to  be  done  and  the  principles  that  should  govern 
it.  He  should  endeavor  to  get  the  practice  teacher  to  develop 
the  habit  of  thoughtfully  planning  all  teaching  and  of  always 
trying  to  secure  improved  results.  As  a  basis  for  mutual 


480  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

understanding  and  economy  in  such  conferences  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  some  formal  scheme  for  writing  out  plans 
for  teaching.  This  is  wise  even  when  there  are  only  a  few 
practice  teachers.  Mimeographed  or  printed  descriptions  of 
such  a  scheme  provide  at  the  outset  for  certain  routine  con- 
ditions that  facilitate  discussion  and  save  giving  many  oral 
directions  which  may  be  incomplete  or  which  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  repeat.  When  there  are  many  practice  teachers 
and  supervisors,  some  such  routine  device  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary for  economy  and  greatly  increases  efficiency. 

Herbartian  formal  steps  a  favorite  routine  device. —  More- 
over, such  a  scheme  assists  new  supervisors  or  critic  teachers 
in  working  into  the  system.  In  any  case,  supervision  is  a 
difficult  process  ;  beginners  often  have  trouble  in  getting  the 
ideas  and  technique  of  doing  it,  and  are  greatly  assisted  by  a 
routine  scheme  that  contains  many  of  the  essentials  of  good 
planning  and  good  teaching.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  for 
the  popularity  of  the  Herbartian  five  formal  steps  of  instruc- 
tion. These  are  essentially  a  routine  device  to  assist  begin- 
ning practice  teachers  and  supervisors  in  the  planning  and 
administration  of  practice  teaching.  As  ordinarily  adminis- 
tered they  make  routine  provision  for  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant principles  of  method,  especially  as  applied  to  reflective 
thinking.  They  may  be  described  as  follows  : 

1.  Preparation. —  Stating  the  aim  of  the  lesson,  recalling 
related  facts,  and  taking  other  precautions  to  put  pupils  in  the 
right  frame  of  mind  for  the  new  material. 

2.  Presentation. —  Securing  new  data  or  experiences  from 
reading,  lecturing,  conversing,  experimenting,  questioning, 
etc. 

3.' 'Association,  comparison,  and  abstraction. —  Discussing 
and  interpreting  the  new  material,  relating  it  to  previous  ex- 
periences, comparing,  classifying,  arranging,  noting  common 
characteristics,  perhaps  reaching  a  vague  feeling  of  the  general 
principles  involved. 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING        481 

4.  Generalization.  —  Formulating  a  statement  of  the  gen- 
eral principles  which  have  been  worked  up  to  in  step  3. 

5.  Application.  —  Interpreting  other  situations  or  experi- 
ences (new  or  old)  in  terms  of  the  generalization  reached, 
working  particular  problems,  and  judging  special  cases  of  all 
sorts. 

It  is  evident  that  the  first  step  provides  for  the  application 
of  the  principle  of  apperception,  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  successful  teaching  (see  above,  pp.  300-312).  The 
second  step  provides  for  the  study  of  specific  examples  as  the 
basis  of  the  study  of  abstractions  and  generalizations.  This 
point  we  have  also  emphasized  (see  p.  217).  The  fifth  step 
provides  specifically  for  practice  in  using  the  knowledge 
acquired  —  a  further  characteristic  of  good  teaching  (see 
pp.  208  and  226). 

Herbartian  scheme  has  improved  practice  teaching.  — 
Thus  we  see  that  the  formal  steps  have  served  a  very  useful 
purpose  in  improving  practice  teaching  in  American  normal 
schools  by  furnishing  a  routine  device  that  insures  the  ob- 
servance of  some  of  the  most  important  principles  of  method. 
As  stated  in  the  note  on  page  229,  the  steps  do  not  corre- 
spond to  the  processes  of  reflective  thought,  as  is  sometimes 
claimed  ;  but  it  is  not  essential  that  they  should.  They  may 
be  used  as  a  practical  device  in  many  lessons  with  fairly  full 
assurance  that  better  results  will  be  obtained  than  if  no  such 
definite  basis  of  planning  had  been  used.  To  be  sure,  if  some 
better  scheme  can  be  devised,  it  should  be  adopted. 

A  routinized  scheme  for  planning  lessons,  which  is  based 
somewhat  on  the  Herbartian  formal  steps  (although  these 
are  not  distinguished  in  the  lesson  plans),  is  described  in 
McMurry's  "  Method  of  the  Recitation  "  (1903)  (pp.  329- 
339).  The  general  principles  to  be  applied  in  planning  are 
so  admirably  set  forth  that  McMurry's  chapter  has  been  very 
influential  in  determining  the  administration  of  lesson-planning 
in  normal  schools  throughout  the  United  States. 


482  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Separate  subject  matter  and  method.  Brief  of  former.  — 
The  most  important  point  in  McMurry's  general  discussion 
concerns  the  separate  study,  mastery,  and  arrangement  of  sub- 
ject matter  and  method  in  the  writing  of  plans.  This  point 
applies  especially  to  the  teaching  of  lessons  in  history,  English 
(both  literature  and  composition),  science,  and  some  lessons  in 
mathematics  and  foreign  language.  After  the  practice  teacher 
has  been  given  the  assignment  of  topics  to  be  taught  (say  the 
Peloponnesian  War  in  Greek  History,  or  old  English  ballads 
in  literature,  or  the  qualities  of  chlorine  in  chemistry)  the 
first  point  that  both  supervisor  and  practice  teacher  should 
make  sure  of  is  that  the  latter  has  a  thorough  mastery  of  the 
subject  matter  to  be  taught.  This  means  not  only  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  detailed  facts,  but  also  clear  ideas  of  the 
relations  involved  and  of  the  relative  values  of  points.  The 
writing  of  a  brief  of  the  subject  matter  furnishes  the  best 
device  for  the  practice  teacher  to  use  in  organizing  his  own 
ideas.  Moreover,  the  practice  teacher's  brief  also  furnishes 
the  supervisor  with  a  definite  objective  basis  for  checking  up 
the  former's  ideas  with  him  (compare  pp.  280  and  432). 

Practice  teacher  needs  f  till  knowledge.  —  Practice  teachers 
need  to  be  strongly  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  deep 
and  thorough  knowledge  of  the  topics  they  are  to  teach. 
They  should  realize  that  profound  knowledge  is  needed  by 
the  teacher  in  order  to  give  pupils  a  correct  and  impressive 
introduction.  In  many  cases,  in  order  that  the  pupils  may 
get  a  correct  general  idea,  many  details  and  examples  must  be 
given  which  they  will  not  be  expected  to  remember.  But  the 
teacher  must  have  all  of  these  details  thoroughly  mastered  and 
learned  ;  hence  he  must  know  and  give  much  more  than  the 
students  will  learn  (compare  Chapter  IV,  pp.  76-78). 

A  practice  teacher  who  is  preparing  and  organizing  a  topic 
for  teaching  might  revise  his  brief  of  the  subject  matter  a 
number  of  times.  At  first  his  organization  may  be  deter- 
mined entirely  by  the  character  of  the  material  itself,  but  he 


may  modify  the  arrangement  later  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
order  in  which  the  topics  might  be  taken  up  to  best  advantage 
in  the  series  of  lessons. 

Write  out  pivotal  questions  in  method  plan.  —  After  the 
inexperienced  practice  teacher  has  mastered  and  organized 
his  subject  matter  for  teaching,  he  should  plan  and  write  out 
quite  completely  an  account  of  the  anticipated  procedure  in 
the  teaching.  This  plan  should  contain  the  exact  wording  of 
the  more  important  questions  that  he  expects  to  ask.  The 
difficulty  of  wording  questions  well  has  already  been  emphasized 
(see  pp.  467-468).  It  is  much  easier  to  tell  a  known  fact  than 
to  secure  a  statement  of  it  from  others  by  questioning.  Hence 
the  practice  teacher  who  has  mastered  his  subject  matter  has 
only  begun  to  get  ready  to  teach  it.  He  might  go  before  his 
class  prepared  to  lecture  glibly  for  half  an  hour,  and  yet  be 
completely  at  a  loss  in  trying  to  secure  effective  and  economi- 
cal progress  by  questioning.  It  behooves  him  to  do  everything 
he  can  before  undertaking  the  actual  teaching,  to  overcome 
the  difficulties  that  will  confront  him.  If  his  class  is  well 
behaved,  his  greatest  difficulty  will  be  to  keep  thinking  with 
sufficient  clearness  and  rapidity  to  ask  good  questions.  If  his 
lesson  follows  certain  well-organized  general  lines,  he  can  de- 
pend upon  using  as  the  most  important  questions  those  which 
he  has  carefully  prepared  in  advance.  These  principal  ques- 
tions constitute  the  turning  points  in  the  discussion  —  the 
points  upon  which  many  of  the  minor  questions  may  hinge. 
McMurry  calls  \hempivotal  questions. 

A  mimeographed  scheme  of  directions  should  be  provided. 
-The  mastery  of  subject  matter  and  its  organization  in  the 
form  of  a  brief,  to  be  followed  by  a  detailed  working  out  of 
the  anticipated  procedure  in  the  teaching,  including  the  exact 
formulation  of  pivotal  questions — these  are  the  two  chief  points 
in  the  planning  of  many  lessons.  This  is  especially  true  of 
lessons  that  involve  association  of  ideas,  reflective  thinking, 
enjoyment,  or  linguistic  expression.  In  addition  to  these  two 


484  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

main  points  there  are  many  details  to  be  considered  in  the 
administration  of  lesson-planning,  and  these  should  all  be 
provided  for  in  some  routine  scheme.  As  a  basis  for  organ- 
izing these  details  in  a  complicated  situation  the  author  uses 
in  the  School  of  Education  in  The  University  of  Chicago  the 
general  scheme  of  directions  printed  below.  The  directions 
apply  to  practice  teaching  from  the  primary  grades  through 
high  school.  Any  skilled,  competent  supervisor  in  the  school 
may  make  modifications  in  the  plan  to  suit  his  own  needs, 
provided  he  furnishes  a  definite  mimeographed  substitute. 
Many  teachers  who  object  to  a  scheme  that  they  are  asked  to 
follow  do  so  merely  because  they  are  irresponsible  individual- 
ists who  do  not  want  to  take  the  trouble  to  provide  careful 
administration.  Such  teachers  need  to  be  held  strictly  to  plans 
for  efficiency  that  have  been  made  by  someone  else.  Other 
teachers,  however,  may  devise  modified  schemes  that  fit  their 
peculiar  needs  better  than  the  general  scheme  does.  They 
should  often  be  encouraged  to  do  so.  Thus,  the  head  of  the 
mathematics  department  in  the  University  of  Chicago  High 
School,  who  has  charge  of  the  practice  teaching  in  mathe- 
matics, uses  mimeographed  modifications  of  the  general  direc- 
tions, which  are  especially  adapted  to  such  practice  teaching  as 
he  supervises.  The  general  directions  which  are  printed  in  a 
handbook  for  practice  teaching  prepared  by  the  author  are  the 
following : 

.       DIRECTIONS  FOR  LESSON  PLANS 

Lesson  plans  should  be  prepared  according  to  the  directions 
given  below  for  that  purpose.  At  first  the  plans  required  should 
be  very  complete,  but  as  the  student  progresses  the  plans  may  be 
briefer  at  the  discretion  of  the  critic  teacher.  These  plans  should 
show  the  critic's  signature  and  date  when  approved. 

In  the  case  of  lessons  in  geography,  history,  science,  literature, 
and  other  content  subjects  above  the  second  grade,  and  in  general 
where  there  is  a  considerable  body  of  subject  matter  to  be  taught, 
the  following  directions  should  be  adhered  to.  In  the  work  of  the 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING        485 

first  and  second  grades,  and  in  the  constructive  work  in  all  grades 
where  the  subject  matter  is  meager,  the  separation  of  subject 
matter  and  method  need  not  be  made.  In  mathematics  and  read- 
ing the  practice  will  vary,  depending  upon  the  topic  and  the  method. 
In  case  there  is  no  reading  to  be  done  by  teacher  or  pupils, 
2,  d  and  2,  e  should  be  omitted. 

1.  Separate  subject  matter  and  method  in  the  plan,  putting  the 
former  on  the  left-hand  page  and  the  latter  on  the  right-hand  page 
(or  in  the  left-hand  and  right-hand  columns,  respectively,  of  the 
same  page).    Use  theme  paper. 

The  subject-matter  plan  for  any  topic  should  be  completed  in 
advance ;  the  method  plan  may  be  prepared  from  day  to  day  or 
for  longer  periods,  as  the  critic  teacher  directs. 

2.  Under  subject  matter  state : 

a.  Topic  of  the  lesson  or  lessons. 

b.  Grade  in  which  the  teaching  is  to  be  done. 

c.  Teacher's  aim  briefly  in  terms  of  information,  or  skill,  or 
habits,  or  ideals,  or  interests,  or  emotions  of  specific  kinds. 

d.  Page  references  to  sources  of  teacher's  information. 

e.  Page  references  to  reading  to  be  done  by  pupils.    Also  list 
of  illustrative  materials  to  be  used. 

f.  A  brief  analysis  of  the  main  points  in  the  lesson  (from  two 
to  four  brief  statements). 

g.  An  outline  (in  the  form  of  a  rather  complete  brief)  containing 
all  important  facts,  principles,  information,  relations,  experiments 
which  are  to  be  contained  in  the  lesson.    The  outline  is  to  consist 
of  complete,  concise  statements,  not  merely  topics.    It  should  be  so 
paragraphed  and  subdivided  as  to  indicate  clearly  the  subordination 
and  relative  value  of  the  parts. 

3.  Under  method  give  : 

a.  A  short  description  of  the  general  procedure  to  be  followed 
in  the  teaching  (in  from  two  to  four  brief  statements). 

b.  A  detailed  statement  of  the  anticipated  procedure,  showing 
chief  steps  to  be  followed  in  teaching  the  lesson  and  main  questions 
to  be  asked.  This  should  consist  of  concise  statements  and  complete 
questions  paragraphed  and  subdivided  in  the  form  of  a  brief.   Indi- 
cate at  appropriate  places  how  illustrative  material  and  various 
forms  of  expression  are  to  be  used. 


486  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

4.  Note  the  difference  between  2,  g,  outline  of  subject  matter, 
and  3,  b,  outline  of  method.  2,g calls  for  the  bare  facts ;  3,  £  calls 
for  the  method  of  treating  these  facts  in  the  class.  For  example, 
in  a  plan  for  teaching  Shakespeare's  "Julius  Caesar"  a  student 
began  2,g  as  follows : 

"  I.  Time  and  historical  setting. 

1 .  44  B.C.   Based  with  remarkable  faithfulness  on  Plutarch's 
narrative. 

2.  The   old    Roman   democracy   was   hopelessly   broken 
down. 

3.  Caesar  the  man  of  the  hour.   Made  himself  master  of  the 
army  and  defeated  his  great  rival,  Pompey,  in  battle. 

4.  Created  dictator  for  life. 

5.  Observed  lenient  policy  toward  enemies  but  many  not 
grateful." 

Under  3,  b  the  same  topic  appeared  as  follows : 
"  I.  Time  and  historical  setting. 

1.  Give  the  date  of  the  action  of  the  drama. 

2.  Describe  the  political  situation  at  Rome. 

3.  In  the  battle  from  which  Caesar  had  just  returned,  who 
were  the  contestants  and  what  were  the  results  ? 

4.  What  was  Caesar's  position  in  the  state  ? 

5.  What  faction  was  forming  against  Cassar  ? " 

A  few  comments  on  certain  points  in  the  above  scheme 
may  be  necessary.  As  indicated  in  the  second  sentence  of 
the  directions,  the  plans  may  be  shortened  as  the  practice 
teacher  acquires  skill.  A  short  written  plan,  at  least,  should 
always  be  required,  however,  even  of  a  fairly  skilled  practice 
teacher,  since  even  the  most  experienced  teacher  will  make  a 
plan  of  a  topic  which  he  is  going  to  teach  for  the  first  time. 
This  plan  would  include  a  short  brief  of  the  subject  matter, 
and  the  pivotal  questions. 

Paragraph  2,  c,  concerning  the  teacher's  aim,  usually  needs 
some  elaboration  to  make  its  meaning  clear..  The  analysis 
suggested  here  corresponds  to  the  discussion  of  proximate 
aims  given  in  Chapter  II  (pp.  18-23). 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING        487 

Paragraphs  2,  */and  2,  e  are  intended  to  make  sure  that  the 
practice  teachers  cover  a  wide  range  of  reading  in  the  con- 
tent subjects  as  a  basis  for  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
topics  to  be  taught.  This  reading  should  be  done  in  standard 
authorities,  not  simply  in  textbooks.  The  supervisor  should 
make  it  easy  for  the  practice  teacher  to  obtain  such  material 
to  read. 

Sample-lesson  plans.  —  Practice  teachers  may  secure  a 
number  of  suggestions  from  sample-lesson  plans.  For  this 
purpose  they  should  read  all  of  the  references  given  in  the 
bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Make  plans  of  lessons  observed. — As  an  exercise  in  secur- 
ing ideas  concerning  the  organization  of  lesson  plans,  a  prac- 
tice teacher  may  observe  a  series  of  lessons  taught  by  a 
skilled  teacher,  take  notes  on  these,  and  write  them  up 
under  the  headings  required  in  the  scheme  for  plans.  This 
should  prove  particularly  helpful  in  getting  ideas  concerning 
specific  purposes  which  the  teacher  seems  to  stress,  and  con- 
cerning the  organization  of  subject  matter  and  the  wording 
of  pivotal  questions.  In  seeing  the  same  skilled  teacher  give 
the  same  lesson  to  different  classes,  often  with  a  year  inter- 
vening, I  have  been  impressed  with  the  definiteness  of  the 
plan  and  the  extent  to  which  it  tends  to  follow  the  same 
general  lines  in  the  various  classes.  After  much  study  and 
experimentation  a  series  of  progressive  steps  and  pivotal 
questions  have  been  selected  by  the  teacher,  which,  with 
slight  variations,  secure  specific  valuable  responses  and  re- 
sults with  almost  perfect  certainty.  If  the  practice  teacher 
who  is  observing  such  teaching  will  cast  the  description  and 
content  of  it  in  the  form  of  a  lesson  plan,  it  will  often  appear 
as  an  excellent  model. 

Departure  from  plan  while  teaching.  Not  necessarily  wide 
with  experienced  teachers.  —  It  is  sometimes  urged  that  a 
teacher  cannot  foresee  just  what  direction  a  lesson  will  take, 
and  hence  that  the  making  of  a  definite  plan  is  a  waste  of 


488  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

time.  Such  facts  as  those  given  in  the  previous  paragraph 
show  that  the  necessary  range  of  variation  in  skilled  teaching 
of  a  given  topic  is  not  as  wide  as  is  implied  in  this  contention. 
There  is  variation,  but  it  is  within  limits  that  can  be  antici- 
pated by  the  skilled  teacher  who  has  mastered  the  subject 
matter  thoroughly  and  who  sees  clearly  the  fundamental  pur- 
poses and  relative  values  involved  in  the  series  of  lessons. 
Hence,  while  the  actual  carrying  out  of  a  plan  will  be  adapted 
to  circumstances,  a  teacher  will  usually  not  depart  from  the 
fundamental  lines  that  he  has  planned.  There  are  some 
supervisors  who  criticize  practice  teachers  for  failure  to  fol- 
low up  every  chance  interest  which  is  expressed  during  a 
recitation.  Such  criticisms  are  based  on  a  wrong  conception 
of  the  purposes  of  instruction.  Skilled  teaching  consists  in 
stimulating  and  directing  mental  activity  so  as  to  accomplish 
certain  specific  aims  and  results ;  it  does  not  consist  simply  in 
arousing  any  mental  activity  that  may  be  secured  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  any  chance  interest.  Even  if  the  interest  which  is 
expressed  presents  valuable  possibilities,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
follow  it  at  the  time  ;  a  tactful  expression  of  appreciation  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  and  postponement  until  some  other 
time  are  sufficient. 

But  more  serious  consideration  needs  to  be  given  to  un- 
foreseen difficulties  encountered  in  the  teaching  of  a  lesson 
or  series  of  lessons.  These  seldom  occur  with  the  teacher 
who  has  taught  the  same  topics  to  similar  classes  a  number 
of  times.  They  will  be  quite  frequent,  however,  with  practice 
teachers.  The  plan  should  be  readjusted  so  as  to  provide  for 
them,  but  not  so  as  to  lose  sight  of  the  purpose  of  the  lessons. 

Example  of  routine  directions  to  practice  teachers  and 
supervisors.  —  Some  additional  suggestions  concerning  the 
organization  of  practice  teaching  may  be  secured  from  the 
following  extracts  from  the  author's  "  Handbook  for  Prac- 
tice Teaching,"  which  is  used  as  the  basis  of  administration 
of  this  work  in  The  University  of  Chicago. 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING        489 

THE  CONDUCT  OF  PRACTICE  TEACHING 

1 .  General  purpose  and  character.  —  The  purposes  of  this  work 
are  (a)  to  help  students  to  appreciate  educational  theory  by  them- 
selves putting  it  into  practice,  and  (b}  to  train  them  in  those  practical 
adjustments  which  constitute  effective  teaching.    Generally  speak- 
ing, the  sooner  a  student  teacher  can  be  prepared  to  do  some  effec- 
tive teaching,  the  better.   Observation  which  follows  some  attempt 
at  teaching  is  more  valuable  than  that  which  precedes  teaching. 

2.  Duties  of  student  teachers. — a.  The  student  is  responsible 
for  understanding  and  appreciating  the  work  of  the  term  in  the 
subject  assigned  for  practice,  and  any  other  phases  of  the  curric- 
ulum of  the  school  or  the  work  of  the  grade  that  the  critic  teacher 
desires  to  take  up. 

b.  The  student  is  responsible  from  the  beginning  for  participat- 
ing and  assisting  in  the  activities  of  the  room  —  for  example,  cor- 
recting papers,  gathering  materials,  assisting  individual  pupils,  etc. 

c.  As  a  rule  the  student  will  be  assigned  at  first  some  easy  sub- 
topic  in  a  larger  unit  and  allowed  to  teach  from  one  to  five  lessons, 
thus  being  initiated  gradually  into  the  work. 

d.  The  number  of  periods  of  teaching  will  be  increased  as  the 
student  becomes  capable  of  assuming  them. 

e.  Student  teachers  are  expected  to  attend  critic  meetings  which 
are  arranged  by  critic  teachers.    These  will  be  frequent  during  the 
first  part  of  the  quarter. 

f.  Student  teachers  should  get  ready  to  begin  teaching  as  soon 
as  possible,  and  are  held  strictly  accountable  for  expected  results. 

g.  The  student  is  primarily  responsible  to  the  critic  teacher  in 
whose  place  he  teaches.    He  may  be  referred  to  the  appropriate 
department  in  the  College  of  Education  for  assistance  in  securing 
the  material  needed  in  preparation  for  his  teaching. 

3 .  Reports  by  critic  teachers.  —  Reports  from  the  critic  teacher  are 
filed  with  the  dean.  These  reports  will  be  made  the  basis  not  only  for 
credits  in  the  course  but  also  for  later  recommendations  to  positions. 

The  points  outlined  below  are  considered  in  making  these  re- 
ports, which  characterize  very  definitely  and  in  detail  the  individu- 
ality of  the  student  teacher.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  critic 
teacher  reports  on  each  point  in  every  case,  but  that  he  emphasizes 


490  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

those  points  that  are  especially  significant  for  the  particular  student 
teacher  concerned.  The  critic  also  adds  comments  on  any  other 
notable  aspects  of  the  student's  work. 

a.  Preparation  of  lessons.  —  Clearness  of  purpose ;  originality ; 
thoroughness;  organization  of  subject  matter;  appreciation  of  rela- 
tive values ;  mechanics  of  plan-arrangement ;  paragraphing,  con- 
ciseness of  statement,  writing,  etc. 

b.  Skill  in  conducting  recitations.  —  In  exposition,  or  telling ;  ques- 
tioning; holding  attention  and  interest;  reaching  individuals;  using 
children's  experiences  and  responses ;  keeping  lessons  organized ; 
economizing  time ;  securing  and  fixing  definite  results ;  using  black- 
board and  other  means  of  illustration ;  care  of  pupils'  English ; 
assigning  study  lessons,  etc. 

c.  Ability  to  manage  children.  —  General  attitude  —  formal,  in- 
formal, severe,  sympathetic ;  systematizing  and  economizing  routine ; 
handling  distracting  or  disturbing  elements ;  maintaining  authority ; 
decision ;  consistency,  etc. 

d.  Personal  fitness  for  teaching. — Health;  energy;  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility ;  intelligence ;  knowledge ;  willingness ;  attitude  toward 
criticism;  promptness;  persistence;  animation;  general  culture  — 
refinement;  courtesy;  confidence,  poise ;  neatness;  carriage;  voice, 
enunciation,  etc. 

e.  General  rating  of  teaching  (as  excellent,  good,  fair,  barely 
passable,  unsatisfactory). 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  practice  teaching  and  lesson 
planning.  —  This  will  conclude  our  discussion  of  practice 
teaching  and  lesson  planning.  It  is  probable  that  during  the 
next  decade  prospective  high-school  teachers  will  be  provided 
with  means  for  such  activity.  In  order  that  large  profit  may 
be  secured  from  a  small  amount  of  practice,  it  is  important 
that  schemes  for  practice  teaching  be  carefully  routinized  and 
that  the  general  principles  of  practice  be  applied.  These  in- 
clude a  correct  distribution  of  time  and  very  careful  planning 
of  lessons  in  order  to  secure  a  correct  start.  The  careful 
organization  of  subject  matter  in  the  form  of  a  brief,  and  the 
preparation  of  pivotal  questions,  are  among  the  most  important 
elements  in  correct  planning. 


PRACTICE  TEACHING  AND  PLANNING       491 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

1.  CHARTERS,  W.  W.  Methods  of  Teaching.  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co., 
1912.)   Pp.  4H-434- 

2.  McMuRRY,  F.  and  C.     The  Method  of  the   Recitation.   (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1903.)    Pp.  329-339. 

3.  STRAYER,  G.  D.    The  Teaching  Process.   (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911.)   Pp.  167-223. 

4.  University  of  Wisconsin.  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
High  School  (1914).    A  unique  scheme  of  mixed  observation  and  prac- 
tice teaching  has  been  organized  in  this  institution.    Student  teachers 
participate  in  all  the  work  of  a  high-school  class  and  may  be  called  on 
at  any  moment  to  "do  the  next  thing"  either  in  the  form  of  reciting  or 
of  teaching. 

5.  Society  of  College  Teachers  of  Education.    Report  on  the  Pro- 
fessional  Preparation    of    High    School   Teachers.     Published  as  the 
Eighteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Educa- 
tion, Part  I.    (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  1919.) 
Contains  many  excellent  accounts  of  actual  operations,  including  practice 
teaching. 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XXI,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E  243-E  244. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i.  Careful  testing  of  the  results 
of  teaching  is  necessary  in  order  to  determine  to  what  extent  its 
aims  and  purposes  are  being  achieved. 

2.  In  order  to  avoid  the  extremes  of  overemphasis  and  neglect 
of  testing,  routine  provision  for  frequent  short  written  tests  should 
be  made,  but  only  a  small  part  of  the  recitation  periods  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose. 

3.  The  tests  should  be  so  conducted  as  to  show  the  real  relative 
abilities  of  the  students. 

4.  The  possibility  of  securing  satisfactory  testing  varies  with  the 
different  types  of  learning ;  it  is  easy  to  test  the  acquisition  of  in- 
formation, but  almost  impossible  at  present  to  measure  the  develop- 
ment of  habits  of  enjoyment. 

5.  Tables  of  distribution  of  the  grades  made  by  all  the  students 
in  the  class  should  be  shown  and  each  student  informed  of  his  own 
standing  with  reference  to  the  rest  of  the  group.    Comparisons 
between  individuals  should  be  avoided,  however. 

6.  In  order  to  measure  the  relative  achievements  of  different 
classes  and  schools,  and  the  relative  efficiency  of  different  methods 
of  instruction,  more  reliable  units  and  scales  for  rating  achievement 
in  the  various  subjects  are  necessary. 

7.  Such  scales  are  being  rapidly  developed  in  several  subjects, 
and  permit  of  more  impartial,  objective,  precise,  and  verifiable  in- 
vestigations of  the  results  of  teaching  than  prevailed  until  recently. 

Measurements  of  results  show  whether  purposes  have  been 
achieved.  —  In  connection  with  all  the  processes  of  learning 
and  instruction  that  have  been  discussed  in  preceding  chap- 
ters it  is  important  to  measure  frequently  the  results  that  are 
being  achieved,  in  order  to  determine  to  what  extent  the 

492 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING   493 

aims  and  purposes  are  actually  being  realized.  Such  meas- 
urements may  consist  of  the  ordinary  oral  or  written  tests 
given  by  the  teacher,  or  of  elaborate  measurements,  by  expert 
supervisors,  of  the  achievements  of  many  classes  or  schools 
or  systems.  These  tests  or  measurements  are  of  value  to 
the  students,  the  teacher,  and  the  supervisors.  To  the  students 
the  ordinary  tests  serve  as  a  stimulus  to  study,  and,  if  prop- 
erly administered,  keep  each  student  informed  of  the  progress 
which  he  is  making.  This  information  concerning  the  prog- 
ress of  the  students  enables  the  teacher  to  adapt  his  instruc- 
tion to  their  needs  and  to  judge  of  the  success  of  his  own 
efforts  and  devices.  The  comparative  measurement  of  the 
results  achieved  by  many  classes  and  systems  enables  ad- 
ministrative officers  and  expert  educational  investigators  to 
determine  just  what  the  schools  actually  are  accomplishing, 
and  the  relative  efficiency  of  various  methods  of  instruction 
in  securing  desirable  results.  We  shall  take  up  first  the  dis- 
cussion of  ordinary  quizzing,  testing,  and  examining  by  the 
individual  teacher,  and  then  consider  the  larger  comparative 
measurements  of  the  achievements  of  several  classes  and  of 
the  efficiency  of  different  methods  of  instruction. 

Routine  testing  by  the  teacher.  Avoid  extremes  of  over- 
emphasis and  neglect.  —  In  connection  with  the  ordinary 
quizzing,  testing,  and  examining  by  the  individual  teacher 
we  find  two  extreme  practices,  with  all  intermediate  degrees 
of  variation.  The  extremes  of  those  are  overemphasis  and 
absolute  neglect.  The  extreme  of  overemphasis  of  quizzing 
and  testing  is  found  in  the  common  practice  of  using  the 
recitation  period  largely  for  the  asking  of  questions  to  deter- 
mine whether  students  have  studied  their  lessons.  Often  the 
whole  period  is  given  up  to  oral  quizzing  or  testing.  The 
extreme  of  neglect  is  found  in  the  work  of  those  idealistic 
instructors  who  insist  that  testing  and  examining  are  debas- 
ing, pernicious  educational  practices.  They  maintain  that 
the  teacher  should  assume  that  students  are  zealous  and 


494  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

conscientious  and  that  they  have  studied  faithfully.  Con- 
sequently they  say  that  the  recitation  should  be  used  entirely 
for  supplementary  and  inspirational  discussions. 

Both  of  these  extremes  should  be  avoided.  The  use  ot  the 
entire  recitation  period  for  oral  quizzing  to  determine  whether 
lessons  have  been  studied  wastes  the  time  of  those  who  have 
mastered  the  assignments,  fails  to  utilize  the  opportunity  for 
supplementary  and  interpretative  discussion,  and  removes  the 
best  motive  for  recitations  ;  namely,  a  real  audience  situation. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  neglect  of  testing  altogether  is  based 
on  the  false  assumption  that  most  students  will  study  consci- 
entiously without  some  regular  stimulus  other  than  the  mere 
love  of  study.  Even  for  most  adult  workers  the  spur  that 
results  from  the  necessity  of  showing  certain  definite,  tangible 
results  at  no  remote  date  is  an  important  factor  in  achieve- 
ment. A  good  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  way  teachers 
themselves  will  delay  the  writing  of  a  paper  or  address  that 
is  not  due  for  some  time,  and  will  really  not  get  down  to 
work  until  the  occasion  is  imminent  and  they  must  show  the 
results.  Moreover,  unless  teacher  and  students  are  continu- 
ally taking  stock  of  the  progress  that  has  been  made,  of  what 
has  been  mastered  and  what  has  not,  their  efforts  to  secure 
a  systematic,  thorough  mastery  of  the  subject  may  often  be 
wasted  to  a  considerable  degree  and  result  in  merely  a  super- 
ficial, confused  impression  of  the  subject. 

Frequent  short  tests  obviate  both  overemphasis  and  neglect. 
-  Both  extremes  (namely,  the  overemphasis  of  testing  and 
its  neglect)  may  be  avoided  by  setting  apart  a  small  but  defi- 
nite part  of  the  recitation  period,  or  of  a  series  of  periods,  for 
testing,  and  using  the  rest  of  the  period  or  periods  for  sup- 
plementary and  interpretative  discussions.  This  practice  is 
simply  an  application  of  the  general  principle  of  making 
routine  provision  for  activities  which  it  is  desirable  to  make 
sure  of  securing  periodically.  It  is  similar  in  general  arrange- 
ment to  the  setting  apart  of  periods  for  supervised  study,  as 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     495 

discussed  above  on  page  402.  Such  routinizing  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  relatively  unskilled,  inexperienced  teachers  if 
they  are  to  avoid  neglecting  important  processes,  and  it  is 
valuable  from  the  standpoint  of  mental  economy  for  even 
skilled  teachers.  If  this  general  practice  of  routinizing  the 
program  is  followed,  specific  and  sure  provision  will  be  made 
for  careful  assignments,  supervised  study,  testing,  and  sup- 
plementary and  interpretative  discussions,  none  of  which 
should  be  neglected. 

Written  tests  better  than  oral  tests.  —  Probably  frequent 
short  written  tests,  supplemented  by  occasional  long  written 
examinations,  constitute  the  best  form  of  routine  testing. 
Students  and  teachers  usually  favor  short  written  tests  in- 
stead of  oral  quizzes,  if  we  may  assume  that  the  same  general 
practices  should  prevail  in  this  regard  in  high  schools  as  in 
college.  The  general  sentiment  of  college  students  them- 
selves concerning  the  value  of  written  quizzes  was  secured 
in  an  investigation  of  certain  problems  of  instruction  in  The 
University  of  Chicago. 

Of  the  Alumni  157  found  frequent  written  tests  in  class  espe- 
cially valuable;  52  did  not.  Of  undergraduates  102  found  them 
so ;  40  did  not.  .  .  . 

The  question,  Which  is  preferable,  the  oral  quiz  or  the  written 
test  ?  was  proposed  to  undergraduates.  The  opinion  is  nearly 
unanimous:  28  favor  the  oral  quiz;  113  the  written  test;  9  a 
combination  of  the  two.  .  .  .  The  reasons  given  for  the  answers 
are  significant  and  suggest  at  once  to  the  teacher  the  respective 
purpose  which  each  may  well  serve. 

The  reasons  assigned  for  preferring  the  oral  quiz  are :  "re- 
quires quick  thought,"  2  ;  "  errors  can  be  corrected  and  explana- 
tion given,"  13;  "gives  training  in  speaking,"  2;  "makes  the 
student  more  logical  in  speaking,"  3  ;  "  prevents  misunderstanding 
of  questions  by  student  or  of  answers  by  teachers,"  3. 

The  reasons  assigned  for  preferring  the  written  test  are :  "gives 
time  to  think  and  organize  and  present  more  logically,"  57 ;  "  student 
is  more  at  ease,"  17  ;  "less  chance  for  bluffing,"  7  ;  "gives  all 


496  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

equal  chance  on  same  questions,"  1 1 ;  "  gives  a  chance  at  more 
than  one  question,"  18 ;  "is  fairer,"  22;  "is  more  thorough," 
14;  "  calls  for  more  preparation,"  6.  (9:  64-65) 

Precautions  for  assuring  commensurable  results  from  stu- 
dents. —  In  order  to  assist  in  the  interpretation  of  the  results 
of  written  tests  it  is  desirable  to  take  certain  precautions  in 
administering  them.  In  the  first  place,  unless  every  student  is 
given  just  as  much  time  as  he  wishes  in  which  to  answer  all 
of  the  questions,  the  same  amount  of  time  should  be  given  to 
all  students  and  the  examination  made  so  difficult  that  no  stu- 
dent can  get  all  of  the  answers  completed  in  the  time  allowed 
or  can  make  a  perfect  score.  If  this  is  not  done,  certain  stu- 
dents may  finish  all  of  the  answers  before  the  allotted  time 
is  up,  and  the  teacher  cannot  tell  how  much  better  they  might 
have  done  if  they  had  been  given  an  opportunity.  Also, 
there  is  likely  to  result  an  undistributed  group  of  perfect 
scores  made  by  students  who  really  have  not  the  same  de- 
gree of  mastery  of  the  subject.  In  other  words,  if  the  exam- 
ination is  not  made  sufficiently  difficult,  out  of  a  class  of 
twenty-five  students  seven  or  eight  may  make  a  score  of  A 
(95  per  cent  to  100  per  cent)  and  appear  to  have  very  nearly 
the  same  mastery  of  the  subject;  whereas,  if  they  were  given 
questions  that  would  really  test  them  out,  it  would  be  found 
that  some  members  of  the  group  of  eight  who  made  a  grade 
of  A  could  really  do  much  better  than  the  others  who  made 
the  same  grade.  For  the  same  reason  all  students  should 
usually  be  required  to  write  on  all  questions  if  the  examina- 
tion covers  the  same  assignment  for  all.  Moreover,  the  stu- 
dents should  probably  be  required  to  answer  the  questions  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  given,  and  if  a  student  omits  a 
question  but  answers  those  that  follow,  it  should  be  assumed 
that  he  is  not  prepared  upon  the  one  that  was  omitted.  In 
cases  where  the  questions  permit  of  long  discussions,  it  is 
often  well  to  place  a  limit  on  the  time  taken  to  answer  each 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING    497 

question  ;  for  example,  in  tests  or  examinations  in  education 
I  find  that  the  best  basis  for  securing  commensurable  results 
from  students  consists  in  giving  a  number  of  questions  cover- 
ing the  assignments  and  in  placing  such  a  limit  upon  the  time 
for  each  question  that  the  best-prepared  students  can  barely 
finish  it  in  the  time  given.  After  the  class  is  started,  I  an- 
nounce, "  Time  to  begin  the  second  question,"  "  Time  to  begin 
the  third  question,"  etc.  This  not  only  secures  fairly  reliable, 
comparative  measures  of  what  the  students  can  do,  but  saves 
them  from  bothering  about  the  distribution  of  their  own  time 
and  helps  them  to  concentrate  their  minds  upon  the  questions 
and  upon  organizing  and  writing  their  answers.  In  subjects 
like  mathematics,  where  each  answer  can  be  definitely  com- 
pleted, the  time  limit  on  single  problems  would  not  apply, 
but  commensurable  results  would  be  secured  by  the  other 
practice,  referred  to  above,  of  giving  such  a  long  list  that  no 
one  could  get  them  all  done  in  the  allotted  time.  Occasion- 
ally the  teacher  needs  to  make  allowance  for  the  variation  in 
the  speed  of  handwriting  of  different  students,  but  this  is 
seldom  practicable. 

Require  preliminary  written  outline  of  answer  to  each 
question.  —  In  order  to  assist  students  to  develop  skill  in 
answering  questions  which  require  discussion,  as  well  as  to 
secure  answers  that  the  teacher  can  read  and  evaluate  rapidly, 
the  latter  should  advise  the  students  to  organize  mentally 
the  answer  to  a  question  in  the  form  of  an  outline  before 
beginning  to  write  out  the  complete  answer.  This  outline 
might  appear  in  the  student's  paper  as  a  part  of  the  answer. 
When  such  a  device  is  used,  the  training  in  the  rapid  or- 
ganization and  expression  of  thought  which  written  tests 
and  examinations  provide  is  further  justification  for  giving 
them  frequently. 

Measuring  various  types  of  learning.  Remembering,  imder- 
standing,  and  applying.  —  In  the  intellectual  studies,  exami- 
nations may  test  any  or  all  of  the  three  following  phases  of 


498  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

the  student's  study  and  progress:  (i)  what  he  remembers, 
(2)  how  well  he  understands  what  he  remembers,  and  (3)  how 
well  he  can  use  or  apply  it. 

(i)  It  is  easiest  to  test  what  students  remember;  conse- 
quently there  is  danger  of  overemphasizing  this  factor  in 
testing,  and  neglecting  the  other  two.  It  should  be  very 
definitely  included  in  the  testing,  however,  for  reasons  that 
are  given  at  length  on  pages  19  and  420.  (2)  Testing  how 
well  students  understand  what  they  remember  is  much  more 
difficult  than  simply  ascertaining  what  they  remember.  Ques- 
tions for  the  former  purpose  usually  call  for  explanation,  in- 
terpretation, or  supplementing  by  the  students.  (3)  To  test 
how  well  students  can  really  use  what  they  have  learned,  in 
solving  problems  or  explaining  new  situations,  is  not  difficult 
in  mathematics,  grammar,  and  the  natural  sciences,  but  it  is 
difficult  in  such  subjects  as  history,  where  there  is  much  in- 
formation to  be  acquired  but  little  opportunity  to  apply  it. 
The  most  difficult  type  of  examination  question  to  devise 
in  some  subjects  is  one  that  tests  all  three  of  these  phases 
of  the  student's  preparation  and  progress  at  the  same  time. 
That  is,  we  want  to  find  out  whether  the  students  have 
studied  certain  specific  assignments  and  whether  they  under- 
stand what  they  have  learned  and  can  apply  it.  In  mathe- 
matics, and  the  natural  sciences  this  can  be  done  without 
difficulty  in  many  cases  by  setting  problems  that  require  ability 
to  recall,  understand,  and  apply  certain  formulae  which  occur 
in  the  assignments  for  study.  In  the  social  sciences  (history, 
sociology,  civics,  economics,  education,  ethics,  etc.),  however, 
this  is  often  difficult,  because  students  may  sometimes  discuss 
an  applied  problem  very  ably  on  the  basis  of  general  informa- 
tion, without  having  studied  the  assigned  readings  at  all.  Such 
bluffing  by  students  on  explanatory  and  applied  questions 
often  makes  it  necessary  for  the  instructor  in  such  subjects  to 
ask  purely  informational  questions  which  cannot  be  answered 
by  the  students  unless  they  have  studied  the  assigned  readings. 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     499 

General  impression  of  objective  proditcts  in  motor  learning. 
—  In  the  testing  of  results  in  subjects  involving  motor  skill 
there  are  usually  definite  objective  tasks  which  can  be  assigned 
and  the  results  graded  roughly  according  to  quality  and  speed 
or  time  required.  As  a  rule  the  teacher's  general  impression 
of  the  achievements  of  various  students  is  the  basis  of  the 
grading.  The  general  impressions  of  some  teachers  are  fairly 
reliable,  but  they  should  be  verified  by  more  precise  means 
of  testing  and  measuring  than  we  now  possess. 

Difficult  to  measure  fundamental  aspects  of  expression. — 
The  testing  of  skill  in  expression  (for  example,  in  composition 
in  high  school)  is  very  difficult,  owing  to  the  complexity  of  the 
factors  involved  and  the  lack  of  definite  standards  for  some  of 
the  more  intangible-  qualities,  such  as  clearness,  organization, 
impressiveness,  etc.  As  a  consequence  unskilled  teachers  give 
attention  to  certain  rather  definite  objective  factors,  such  as 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  indentation,  and  grade  almost  en- 
tirely on  this  basis,  thus  largely  disregarding  the  other  more 
fundamental  aspects  of  skill  in  expression. 

No  adequate  measures  of  habits  of  enjoyment.  —  For  test- 
ing the  acquisition  of  habits  of  enjoyment  we  have  almost 
no  methods.  How  can  a  teacher  find  out  what  relative  prog- 
ress the  various  members  of  a  class  in  music  have  made  in 
the  development  of  habits  of  enjoying  standard  music  ?  How 
can  a  teacher  of  literature  ascertain  the  same  fact  for  the  better 
grades  of  fiction  or  contemporary  periodical  literature  ?  Owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  setting  examinations  for  such  factors,  and 
to  the  ease  of  testing  information  acquired,  nearly  all  teach- 
ers of  such  subjects  simply  make  up  questions  that  test  the 
student's  knowledge  of  facts  or  allusions,  or  of  the  technical 
qualities  of  compositions  or  selections,  and  entirely  fail  to 
test  habits  of  enjoyment.  Such  a  practice  is  not  only  a  fail- 
ure from  the  standpoint  of  effective  testing,  but  it  is  also  per- 
nicious because  it  tends  to  throw  the  emphasis  upon  purely 
intellectual  instead  of  emotional  processes  in  the  instruction. 


500  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Methods  of  grading.  May  be  based  on  relative  position  in 
some  subjects.  —  The  returns  secured  in  tests  and  examina- 
tions should  be  carefully  graded,  the  marks  distributed  so  as 
to  show  the  relative  number  of  achievements  o*f  different  grade, 
and  each  student  informed  just  where  he  stands  in  the  distri- 
bution ;  that  is,  with  reference  to  the  achievements  of  the  class 
as  a  group.  In  certain  subjects,  like  algebra  and  the  gram- 
matical exercises  in  a  foreign  language,  it  is  relatively  easy 
to  get  definite  grades  for  papers  in  terms  of  per  cents,  which 
will  represent  fairly  well  the  relative  achievements  of  the  stu- 
dents. In  the  case  of  examination  papers  in  which  discussion 
is  the  most  important  thing,  however,  it  is  difficult  to  rate 
or  grade  exactly.  Hence  it  is  a  good  practice  to  distribute 
such  papers  into  piles  according  to  their  relative  value,  and 
then  to  assign  a  grade  to  each  pile.  The  teacher  may  esti- 
mate roughly  that  five  grades  or  piles  will  do.  Upon  reading 
the  first  paper  he  places  it  where  it  would  seem  to  belong ; 
that  is,  as  being  of  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  or  fifth  grade. 
Similarly  with  the  following  papers.  If  a  paper  is  read  which 
seems  to  be  superior  to  any  which  have  been  placed  in  the 
first-grade  pile,  it  can  be  placed  in  a  new  pile  by  itself,  thus 
establishing  a  new  best  grade.  Similarly,  grades  or  piles 
between  the  others  or  below  the  others  can  be  started  if  it  is 
found  necessary.  Usually  from  five  to  ten  piles  will  be  suffi- 
cient. After  this  discribution  by  relative  position  has  been 
made,  the  teacher  can  decide  what  grade  in  the  regular  marking 
system  is  deserved  by  the  best  paper  or  papers  ;  that  is,  whether 
it  should  be  marked  A  or  A—,  or  B.  Similarly,  the  mark  for 
the  poorest  paper  or  papers  could  be  decided  upon,  and  then  the 
intermediate  piles  assigned  their  marks  accordingly.  If  there 
are  many  papers,  and  the  examination  has  been  sufficiently 
difficult,  it  will  be  found  that  the  distribution  will  roughly 
approximate  the  normal  type  described  above  on  page  377. 

Correct  all  answers  to  each  question  by  itself.  —  In  cases 
where  there  are  a  great  many  papers  to  grade,  and  the  answers 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     501 

take  the  form  of  discussions,  it  is  often  well  to  read  the  answers 
to  the  first  question  in  all  the  papers  and  rate  them  before 
reading  the  answers  to  the  other  questions.  In  doing  this  the 
same  method  of  distribution  by  relative  position  should  be 
followed  as  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  That  is, 
while  simply  reading  answers  to  the  first  question  the  papers 
should  be  distributed  into  five  piles.  After  reading  all  first 
answers,  the  papers  in  the  best  pile  should  all  be  given  a  grade 
of  5  on  the  first  question,  and  those  in  the  poorest  pile  a  grade 
of  i  or  less.  The  papers  in  the  other  piles  should  be  labeled 
4,  3,  and  2  for  the  first  answer,  according  to  the  piles  in  which 
they  belong.  Grades  i|,  2^,  3^,  and  4^  can  be  inserted  if 
desired.  The  papers  are  then  shuffled  and  all  of  the  answers 
to  the  second  question  are  read  and  numbered  in  the  same 
way.  After  this  has  been  done  for  all  the  questions,  the  scores 
for  the  several  answers  in  each  paper  can  be  added  to  secure 
a  single  score.  The  paper  having  the  highest  total  score  will 
be  the  best  paper,  and  the  one  having  the  lowest  will  be  the 
poorest.  It  can  then  be  determined  what  grades  in  the  regu- 
lar marking  system  these  extremes  deserve,  and  the  marks 
for  the  intermediate  papers  can  be  assigned  accordingly. 

Inform  class  of  the  general  distribution  of  grades  and  let 
each  pupil  know  his  own  grade.  —  After  grading  the  papers 
they  should  be  returned  to  the  students  in  such  a  way  as  to 
minimize  the  giving  of  publicity  to  individual  achievement. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  group  achievement  should  be  shown 
and  explained  to  the  class  just  as  fully  as  possible  by  putting 
on  the  blackboard  a  table  of  distribution  showing  the  number 
of  A's,  B's,  C's,  etc.  made  in  the  examination.  This  will  en- 
able each  individual  to  understand  just  where  he  ranks  with 
reference  to  the  possible  achievement  in  that  class  and  sub- 
ject, without  introducing  any  comparisons  between  individual 
students.  At  the  same  time  the  teacher  should  discuss  the 
various  types  of  possible  answers  to  the  several  questions,  and 
should  comment  on  good  answers  and  typical  errors. 


502  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  periodical  testing  of  the  achievements  and  progress 
of  students  could  be  greatly  improved  by  the  development  of 
adequate  scales  of  measurement  and  standards  of  achievement 
and  the  mastery  of  the  special  technique  of  using  these.  The 
discussion  of  these  can  be  taken  up  to  best  advantage,  however, 
in  connection  with  the  second  large  aspect  of  measuring  the 
results  of  teaching ;  namely,  the  testing  of  the  relative  achieve- 
ments of  different  groups  of  students,  or  of  different  schools 
or  different  systems,  to  which  we  shall  now  turn  our  attention. 

Comparative  measures  of  different  classes  and  methods. 
Enthusiastic  interest  developed  recently.  —  The  development 
of  an  interest  in  securing  adequate  reliable  measures  of  what 
schools  are  actually  accomplishing  has  occurred  during  the 
last  twenty  years.  This  fact  is  brought  out  in  the  following 
statement  by  Ayers,  written  in  1912. 

Fifteen  years  ago  the  school  superintendents  of  America,  assem- 
bled in  convention  in  Indianapolis,  discussed  the  problems  then 
foremost  in  educational  thought  and  action.  At  that  meeting  a  dis- 
tinguished educator  —  the  pioneer  and  pathfinder  among  the  scien- 
tific students  of  education  in  America  —  presented  the  results  of 
his  investigations  of  spelling  in  the  school  systems  of  nineteen  cities. 
These  results  showed  that,  taken  all  in  all,  the  children  who  had 
spent  forty  minutes  a  day  for  eight  years  in  studying  spelling  did 
not  spell  any  better  than  the  children  in  the  schools  of  other  cities 
where  they  devoted  only  ten  minutes  per  day  to  the  study. 

The  presentation  of  these  data  threw  that  assemblage  into  con- 
sternation, dismay,  and  indignant  protest.  But  the  resulting  storm 
of  vigorously  voiced  opposition  was  directed,  not  against  the  methods 
and  results  of  the  investigation,  but  against  the  investigator  who 
had  pretended  to  measure  the  results  of  teaching  spelling  by  testing 
the  ability  of  the  children  to  spell. 

In  terms  of  scathing  denunciation  the  educators  there  present, 
and  the  pedagogical  experts,  who  reported  the  deliberations  of  the 
meeting  in  the  educational  press,  characterized  as  silly,  dangerous, 
and  from  every  viewpoint  reprehensible  the  attempt  to  test  the 
efficiency  of  the  teacher  by  finding  out  what  the  pupils  could  do. 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     503 

With  striking  unanimity  they  voiced  the  conviction  that  any  attempt 
to  evaluate  the  teaching  of  spelling  in  terms  of  the  ability  of  the 
pupils  to  spell  was  essentially  impossible  and  based  on  a  profound 
misconception  of  the  function  of  education. 

Last  week  [February,  1912],  in  the  City  of  St.  Louis,  that  same 
association  of  school  superintendents,  again  assembled  in  conven- 
tion, devoted  forty-eight  addresses  and  discussions  to  tests  and 
measurements  of  educational  efficiency.  The  basal  proposition 
underlying  this  entire  mass  of  discussion  was  that  the  effectiveness 
of  the  school,  the  methods,  and  the  teachers  must  be  measured  in 
terms  of  the  results  secured.  .  .  . 

The  object  of  the  new  method  is  the  substitution  of  evidence  for 
opinion  and  knowledge  for  speculation.  Its  champions  are  working 
to  develop  measurements  in  education  because  they  realize  that  only 
by  this  method  can  education  become  an  art  and  a  science  and  its 
practice  be  changed  from  a  vocation  to  a  profession.  They  scan 
the  history  of  science  and  remember  that  through  the  develop- 
ment of  measurements  astronomy  grew  out  of  astrology,  chemistry 
emerged  from  alchemy,  and  physics  developed  from  mystery. 

They  read  the  history  of  education  and  realize  that  the  astonishing 
progress  of  the  past  decade  has  come  from  shifting  the  position  of 
inquiry  from  asking  "  What  results  can  or  might  we  get "  to  "  What 
results  are  we  getting  ?  "  This  makes  the  pupil  and  not  the  teacher 
the  center  of  interest.  It  calls  a  halt  on  the  futile  quest  for  standards 
of  attainment  on  which  we  have  never  come  to  an  agreement,  and 
aims  instead  to  discover  units  of  measurement.  Simple  as  it  sounds, 
this  change  from  asking  "  What  results  should  we  get  ?  "  to  asking 
"  What  results  are  we  getting  ?  "  is  the  keynote  of  the  whole  scien- 
tific method  in  education.  To  answer  the  question  in  its  new  form 
means  the  development  of  units  of  measurement,  and  when  these 
are  secured,  the  standards  of  attainment  will  work  themselves  out 
automatically.  (1 :  300,  308) 

Ordinary  opinions  are  unreliable  for  comparisons.  —  The 

need  of  determining  the  value  of  teaching  by  a  measurement  of 
its  results,  instead  of  relying  upon  the  observation  and  opinion 
of  teachers  and  educators,  is  shown  by  the  great  difference  of 
opinion  among  such  persons  when  judging  the  same  teaching. 


504  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Thus,  one  supervisor  will  say  that  a  geometry  lesson  was  very 
well  taught  because  the  students  were  active  and  alert  and  there 
was  much  rapid-fire  discussion.  Another  supervisor  will  con- 
demn the  same  lesson  because  the  students  were  not  quiet  and 
self-controlled.  Needless  to  say,  the  only  adequate  basis  of  judg- 
ing the  effectiveness  of  the  teaching  is  found  in  the  measured 
achievements  and  progress  of  the  students  in  acquiring  and 
mastering  geometrical  processes,  methods,  ideals,  and  interests. 
Judgments  of  science  made  reliable  by  special  technique.  — 
The  judgments  of  opinion  have  been  contrasted  with  the  more 
reliable  judgments  of  science  by  Ayers  in  the  above  quotation 
and  by  Thorndike  in  the  following  statement : 

The  judgments  of  science  are  distinguished  from  the  judgments 
of  opinion  by  being  more  impartial,  more  objective,  more  precise, 
more  subject  to  verification  by  any  competent  observer,  and  by  being 
made  by  those  who  by  nature  and  training  should  be  better  judges. 

Science  knows  or  should  know  no  favorites  and  cares  for  nothing 
in  its  conclusions  but  their  truth.  Opinion  is  often  misled  by  the 
"  unconscious  logic  of  its  hopes  and  fears,"  by  prepossessions  for  or 
against  this  or  that  book  or  method  or  result  Science  pays  no  heed 
to  anything  but  the  facts  which  it  has  already  made  sure  of;  it 
puts  nothing  in  the  scales  but  objective  evidence.  Opinion  trusts 
its  personal  impressions,  bows  to  authority,  and  follows  the  crowd. 
Anyone's  opinion  constantly  favors  the  methods  he  is  used  to,  and 
is  suspicious  of  new  ideas  except  his  own ;  it  accepts  without  veri- 
fication and  rejects  without  a  fair  trial.  Science  seeks  precise  quan- 
titative measures  of  facts  by  which  changes  and  correspondences 
may  be  properly  weighed ;  opinion  is  content  to  guess  at  amounts 
of  difference  and  likeness,  to  talk  in  the  vague  terms  of  more  or 
less,  much  and  little,  to  rate  a  method  as  better  or  worse  without 
taking  the  pains  to  find  out  just  how  much  better  or  worse  it  is. 
Science  reveals  the  sources  of  its  evidence  and  the  course  of  its 
arguments,  so  that  any  properly  equipped  thinker  can  verify  for 
himself  the  facts  asserted  to  be  true.  Opinion  offers  itself  to  be 
accepted  or  rejected,  but  not  to  be  verified  or  intelligently  criticized. 
Science  is  the  work  of  minds  specialized  to  search  after  truth  and 
selected  as  fit  for  the  work  by  their  equals  and  superiors  in  it. 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     5O5 

Opinion  is  the  occasional  thought  of  those  who,  though  important  and 
capable  people,  are  yet  only  amateurs  in  the  work  of  getting  truth. 
Science  would  decide  between  two  methods,  say  of  teaching 
reading,  by  giving  each  an  adequate  trial,  by  measuring  exactly 
the  changes  in  bodily  welfare,  knowledge,  interest,  habits,  powers, 
and  ideals  caused  by  the  two,  and  by  comparing  impartially  the 
results  in  the  two  cases.  It  would,  for  instance,  arrange  that 
method  A  should  be  tried  in  ten  or  twenty  classes  and  method  B 
in  ten  or  twenty  other  classes  of  equal  ability  and  advantages, 
taught  by  equally  competent  teachers.  It  would  make  sure  that 
the  two  groups  of  teachers  tried  equally  hard  and  that  the  two 
groups  of  classes  were  alike  with  respect  to  schoolroom  equip- 
ment, the  amount  of  time  given  to  reading,  and  the  like.  It  would 
measure  with  precision  the  accomplishment  of  each  pupil  in  read- 
ing itself,  in  spelling  and  writing,  in  knowledge  of  facts  gained,  in 
appreciation  of  good  literature,  in  interest  in  reading,  in  such  habits 
as  might  be  influenced  by  the  special  training -of  reading,  in  power 
to  learn  new  things,  and  so  on  through  the  list  of  all  the  changes 
which  instruction  in  reading  may  produce.  (4  :  265-267) 

Variations  in  opinions  shown  by  grading  of  a  geometry 
paper,  —  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  securing 
such  reliable  scientific  judgments  and  measurements  as  Thorn- 
dike  describes  is  the  lack  of  units  and  scales  of  measurement 
to  use  in  rating  or  grading  the  achievements  of  students. 
Even  the  grading  or  measuring  of  such  a  definite  piece  of  work 
as  a  student's  geometry  paper  is  quite  difficult,  and  under 
ordinary  circumstances  permits  of  the  widest  variation,  owing 
to  the  varying  opinions  and  standards  of  different  teachers. 
This  fact  was  brought  out  strikingly  by  Elliott  and  Starch, 
who  sent  copies  of  the  same  geometry  examination  paper  to 
a  number  of  teachers  to  be  graded,  as  described  below. 

The  paper  was  written  as  a  final  examination  by  a  pupil  in  one 
of  the  largest  high  schools  in  Wisconsin.  Plates  of  this  answer 
paper  were  made  and  several  hundred  copies  were  printed  upon 
foolscap,  thus  exactly  reproducing  the  original  in  every  detail.  .  .  . 

A  set  of  questions  and  a  copy  of  the  answer  paper  were  sent  to 
approximately  180  high  schools  in  the  North  Central  Association, 


506  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

with  the  request  that  the  principal  teacher  in  mathematics  grade 
this  paper  according  to  the  practices  and  standards  of  the  school. 

One  hundred  and  forty  papers  were  returned.    Twelve  had  to 
be  discarded  because  some  of  the  data  called  for  were  not  given. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  GRADES  ASSIGNED  TO  THE  SAME  GEOMETRY 
PAPER  BY  us  HIGH-SCHOOL  TEACHERS 


2S  45  5°        55         6°         65          70  75         80         85          90 

FIG.  i.   Passing  grade  70.   43  schools.    Median  67.   Probable  error  8 


39  41  44  50  55          60  65  70         75  80          85 

FIG.  2.    Passing  grade  75.   75  schools.    Median  70.    Probable  error  7.2 


28  53  55  60  65  70  75  80          85        90 

FIG  3.    [Combined  distribution.]   Marks  assigned  by  schools  whose  passing 
grade  is  70  are  weighted  by  3  points.    Median  70.    Probable  error  7.5. 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     507 

Of  the  remaining  128,  43  came  from  schools  whose  passing  grade 
is  70,  75  from  schools  whose  passing  grade  is  75,  and  10  from 
schools  whose  passing  grade  is  80.  The  papers  show  evidence  of 
having  been  marked  with  unusual  care  and  attention.  Separate 
grades  and  comments  usually  accompanied  the  answer  to  each 
question. 

The  grades  thus  assigned  are  represented  by  the  distribution 
charts  in  Figures  1,2,  and  3.  The  scheme  of  these  charts  is  self- 
evident.  The  range  of  marks  is  indicated  along  the  base  line,  and 
the  number  of  times  each  grade  was  given  is  indicated  by  the  num- 
ber of  dots  above  that  grade.  Thus,  in  Figure  i  the  grade  70  was 
assigned  by  5  teachers.  .  .  . 

Figure  i  gives  the  values  assigned  by  43  teachers  in  schools 
whose  passing  grade  is  70.  Figure  2  gives  the  values  assigned  by 
75  teachers  in  schools  whose  passing  grade  is  75.  ...  Figure  3  is 
a  composite  chart  showing  the  values  assigned  by  [both  groups]  of 
teachers.  (8:  255-257) 

The  wide  variation  in  the  distribution  of  the  grades  given 
to  the  same  paper  by  different  teachers  shows  the  fallacy  of 
the  current  assumption  that  a  mathematics  paper  can  be 
graded  with  mathematical  precision  or  is  so  graded  in  ordi- 
nary practice.  Thus,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i,  in  schools  where 
the  passing  grade  was  70,  one  teacher  gave  the  paper  a  grade 
of  25,  two  others  a  grade  of  45,  and  two  others  a  grade  of  90. 

Elliott  and  Starch  had  tried  a  similar  experiment  with  an 
examination  paper  written  by  a  student  in  high-school  English, 
and  had  found  similarly  a  wide  variation  in  the  grades  given 
it.  Strange  to  say,  however,  the  marks  for  the  mathematics 
paper  showed  even  greater  variation.  In  commenting  on  this 
fact  they  write  as  follows  : 

Why  the  marks  of  this  particular  paper  vary  even  more  widely 
than  those  of  the  English  papers  is  to  be  sought  in  the  fact  that 
this  geometry  paper  allowed  of  two  fairly  distinct  ways  of  evalu- 
ation. The  form,  make-up,  and  appearance  of  the  paper  were  of 
decidedly  poor  quality.  Some  teachers  entirely  disregarded  these 
elements,  while  others  imposed  a  heavy  penalty  upon  the  paper  on 


508  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

their  account.  In  many  instances  this  was  indicated  by  the  com- 
ments on  the  papers.  But  even  this  difference  in  viewpoint  alone 
does  not  explain  the  extremely  high  or  extremely  low  marks.  For 
example,  one  teacher  gave  the  paper  a  mark  of  50  and  said  that 
he  had  deducted  4  points  for  spelling.  Another  marked  it  45  and 
stated  that  he  had  made  no  deduction  for  the  poor  form.  Still 
another  one  marked  it  75  including  a  penalty  for  form  or  85 
excluding  a  penalty  for  form.  Furthermore,  the  amount  that  was 
subtracted  for  careless  make-up  ranged  from  3  points  in  the  case 
of  one  teacher  to  13  points  in  the  case  of  another.  (8  :  258) 

Scales  of  measurement  are  being  developed  in  various 
subjects.  —  If  reliable  comparative  measures  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  various  classes,  schools,  and  systems  are  to  be 
obtained,  it  is  obvious  that  more  reliable  methods  of  rating 
these  achievements  must  be  secured  than  are  provided  by 
the  ordinary  systems  of  grading  and  marking.  In  order  to 
secure  more  reliable  objective  scales  and  methods  of  measure- 
ment, a  number  of  investigators  have  been  at  work  for  several 
years  devising  them  for  the  various  subjects.  In  the  case  of 
elementary-school  subjects,  C.  W.  Stone,  working  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  E.  L.  Thorndike,  produced  in  1908 
standard  tests  for  sixth-grade  arithmetic.  Work  along  this 
line  has  been  carried  still  farther  by  S.  A.  Courtis,  who  has 
developed  a  series  of  tests  and  standards  in  arithmetic  for 
all  grades,  which  can  be  purchased  and  used  to  advantage  by 
any  school  official.  In  1910,  Thorndike  published  a  scale  for 
the  measurement  of  handwriting,  and  Ayers  published  another 
scale  for  the  same  subject  about  the  same  time.  Thorndike 
also  published  a  scale  for  drawing  in  1913. 

Example  of  scale  for  judging  compositions. —  In  the  case 
of  high-school  subjects  the  most  interesting  development  is 
the  "  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Com- 
position "  worked  out  by  M.  B.  Hillegas  in  cooperation  with 
Thorndike.  This  scale  consists  of  sample  compositions  of 
various  degrees  of  merit,  arranged  in  order  and  graded  from 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     509 

o  to  100.    The  following  are  examples  of  three  grades  in 
the  series  : 

[Sample  composition  of  grade]  o 

Dear  Sir :  I  write  to  say  that  it  aint  a  square  deal  Schools  is  I 
say  they  is  I  went  to  a  school,  red  and  gree  green  and  brown  aint 
it  hito  bit  I  say  he  don't  know  his  business  not  today  nor  yesterday 
and  you  know  it  and  I  want  Jennie  to  get  me  out. 

[Sample  composition  of  grade]  37 
SULLA  AS  A  TYRANT 

When  Sulla  came  back  from  his  conquest  Marius  had  put  him- 
self consul  so  sulla  with  the  army  he  had  with  him  in  his  conquest 
seized  the  government  from  Marius  and  put  himself  in  consul  and 
had  a  list  of  his  enemys  printy  and  the  men  whoes  names  were  on 
this  list  we  beheaded. 

[Sample  composition  of  grade]  83 
VENUS  OF  MELOS 

In  looking  at  this  statue  we  think,  not  of  wisdom,  or  power,  or 
force,  but  just  of  beauty.  She  stands  resting  the  weight  of  her 
body  on  one  foot,  and  advancing  the  other  (left)  with  knee  bent. 
The  posture  causes  the  figure  to  sway  slightly  to  one  side,  de- 
scribing a  fine  curved  line.  The  lower  limbs  are  draped  but  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  is  uncovered.  (The  unfortunate  loss  of 
the  statue's  arms  prevents  a  positive  knowledge  of  its  original  atti- 
tude.) The  eyes  are  partly  closed,  having  something  of  a  dreamy 
langour.  The  nose  is  perfectly  cut,  the  mouth  and  chin  are  moulded 
in  adorable  curves.  Yet  to  say  that  every  feature  is  of  faultless 
perfection  is  but  cold  praise.  No  analysis  can  convey  the  sense  of 
her  peerless  beauty.  (3:  214-218) 

Such  a  scale  makes  it  possible  for  a  teacher  or  an  investi- 
gator to  rate  or  grade  compositions  in  an  objective  way  that 
anyone  familiar  with  the  scale  can  understand.  For  example, 
the  teacher,  after  reading  a  student's  composition,  would  say, 
*'  This  is  most  like  number  83  in  the  scale,"  and  grade  it  83. 


510  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Such  a  method  of  grading,  when  perfected,  should  produce 
much  less  variation  in  the  ranking  of  papers  by  different 
judges  than  does  the  ordinary  method  investigated  by  Elliott 
and  Starch.  Moreover,  it  tends  to  include  in  the  standard  of 
grading  the  fundamental  aspects  of  composition  instead  of 
merely  including  such  minutiae  as  spelling,  punctuation,  and 
indentation,  as  described  on  page  499.  For  improvements 
upon  the  Thorndike-Hillegas  scale  see  number  5  in  the 
bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Teachers  should  study  technique  of  measurement.  —  The 
last  five  years  (1909-1914)  have  witnessed  enormous  progress 
in  the  development,  by  experts,  of  such  methods  of  measuring 
the  results  of  teaching  —  methods  that  are  impartial,  objec- 
tive, precise,  and  subject  to  verification  by  any  competent 
observer.  The  beginning  teacher  may  not  be  very  much 
concerned  with  the  use  of  these  methods  at  first,  but  after 
he  has  developed  control  of  the  ordinary  routine  of  teaching, 
he  ought  to  train  himself  in  the  use  of  these  methods,  in 
order  that  he  may  secure  reliable  measures  of  the  efficiency 
of  his  own  teaching. 

Conclusion  of  discussion  of  measuring  results.  —  In  this 
chapter  we  emphasized  the  necessity  of  developing  a  special 
and  reliable  technique  of  measuring  the  results  of  teaching. 
This  technique  should  frequently  be  applied  in  the  classroom 
by  the  teacher,  in  order  to  demonstrate  to  himself  and  to  the 
students  just  what  progress  they  are  making.  Each  student 
should  be  told  how  his  achievement  compares  with  the  total 
achievement  of  the  class,  but  comparisons  between  individuals 
should  be  avoided.  To  be  reliable  and  satisfactory,  the  measures 
of  achievement  should  be  impartial,  objective,  and  precise  as 
far  as  possible. 


MEASURING  THE  RESULTS  OF  TEACHING     511 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

General  discussions. — i.  AYERS,  L.  P.  Measuring  Educational  Proc- 
esses through  Educational  Results.  School  Review,  May,  191 2,  Vol.  XX, 
pp.  300-309.  A  very  readable  brief  account  of  recent  developments. 

2.  BOBBITT,  F.  The  Supervision  of  City  Schools.    In  twelfth  Year- 
book of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,   (The  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Press,  1913.)  Pp.  15-50.    The  best  nontechnical  general 
interpretation  of  recent  attempts  to  measure  results. 

3.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.  Education,  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1912.) 
Pp.  212-228.  Brief,  nontechnical,  concrete  discussion  of  recently  devel- 
oped scales  for  measuring  results  in  various  subjects. 

4.  THORNDIKE,  E.  L.   Principles  of  Teaching.  (A.  G.  Seiler,  1905.) 
Pp.  257-273.    Best  brief  discussion  of  general  principles  of  testing  in 
teaching. 

Special  studies.  —  5.  Harvard-Newton  Composition  Scales.  The 
Harvard- Newton  Bulletin  No.  3.  (Harvard  University,  September,  1914.) 
Presents  five  scales  designed  to  measure  efficiency  in  description,  narra- 
tion, exposition,  argumentation,  and  reproduction. 

6.  HILLEGAS,  M.  B.    A  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in 
English  Composition  by  Young  People.    Teachers  College  Record,  Sep- 
tember, 1912,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  331-384. 

6a.  JOHNSON,  F.  W.  The  Thorndike-Hillegas  Scale.  School  Re- 
view, January,  1913,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  39-49.  Criticism  based  on  experi- 
ments with  the  scale. 

7.  STARCH,  D.,  and  ELLIOTT,  E.  C.  Reliability  of  Grading  Work  in 
English.   School  Review,  September,  1912,  Vol.  XX,  pp.  442-457. 

8.  STARCH,  D.,  and  ELLIOTT,  E.  C.   Reliability  of  Grading  Work  in 
Mathematics.   School  Review,  April,  1913,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  254-259. 

9.  TUFTS,  J.  H.   Present  Problems  of  Instruction  in  The  University 
of  Chicago.    The  University  of  Chicago  Magazine,  December,  1910, 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  58-86. 

Bibliography.  — 10.  Measurements  of  Educational  Products.  Seven- 
teenth Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  II.  (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  1918.) 

EXERCISES 

For  problems  for  class  discussion  of  Chapter  XXII,  see  Exercises  for 
"Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools"  pp.  E245-E25O. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

Main  points  of  the  chapter.  —  i .  In  order  that  the  practical 
applications  of  the  principles  of  method  may  be  made  clear  to 
students,  it  is  desirable  to  organize  systematic  observations  in  con- 
nection with  courses  in  method. 

2.  Such  observations  may  serve  either  as  illustrations  of  prin- 
ciples previously  discussed  or   as  the   basis  for  deriving   these 
principles. 

3.  An  outline  of  questions  is  printed,  which  takes  up  most  of 
the  topics  treated  in  preceding  chapters  and  may  be  adapted  to  a 
variety  of  situations. 

Observation  essential  to  show  applications  of  theory.  — 

Perhaps  the  most  instructive  method  of  studying  the  general 
principles  of  method  in  normal-school  or  college  classes  is 
to  take  the  whole  class  of  prospective  teachers  to  observe  a 
lesson  taught  by  a  fairly  skilled  or  competent  teacher,  and 
then  to  discuss  the  observed  lesson  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  general  principles  which  have  been  studied  or  which  are 
to  be  studied.  In  the  case  of  prospective  teachers  such  ob- 
servations are  almost  essential  in  order  that  the  principles 
which  are  under  discussion  may  not  remain  purely  abstract 
theory  to  them.  Even  in  the  case  of  experienced  teachers 
it  is  often  very  illuminating  to  have  it  demonstrated  that 
nearly  all  the  questions  of  method  that  might  be  raised  in 
connection  with  observed  lessons  do  depend  upon  funda- 
mental principles,  and,  furthermore,  that  having  these  prin- 
ciples in  mind  will  enable  them  to  analyze,  interpret,  and 
criticize  teaching  more  skillfully.  Unfortunately,  much  of 
our  actual  practice  in  teaching,  even  by  skilled  teachers,  is 

512 


ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING     513 

done  without  conscious  regard  to  sound  fundamental  prin- 
ciples ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  detailed  practical  appli- 
cations of  fundamental  principles  are  seldom  indicated  on  a 
large  scale  by  educational  theorists. 

Observations  for  illustration  versus  observations  as  sources 
of  discussion.  —  For  purposes  of  economy,  in  covering  the 
ground  in  a  general  course  in  the  principles  of  method  it 
is  usually  necessary  to  have  the  observations  serve  primarily 
as  illustrations  of  principles  of  method  which  have  been  or 
are  being  studied  systematically  in  the  class.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  base  a  course  on  observations  so  that  practically 
all  the  principles  which  it  is  desired  to  formulate  can  be  de- 
rived from  previous  observations  through  discussions  strictly 
guided  by  the  instructor.  In  my  own  teaching  of  prospective 
teachers  it  has  always  seemed  to  me  desirable  to  follow  the 
more  systematic  introduction  to  the  principles  of  method  by 
means  of  syllabus,  assigned  readings,  lectures,  and  discus- 
sions, with  observations  to  provide  illustrations.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  classes  consisting  of  experienced  teachers 
who  are  preparing  for  supervision,  it  has  seemed  to  me  that 
the  informal  discussions  based  on  observations  are  better. 
An  essential  point  in  this  method  is  the  systematic  state- 
ment and  organization  of  principles  after  they  have  been 
worked  out  in  the  discussions.  This  should  include  the 
gradual  development  of  a  syllabus  of  the  main  points  by 
the  teacher  as  the  course  progresses,  and  the  independent 
preparation  of  a  detailed  syllabus  by  each  member  of  the 
class.  It  usually  happens  that  these  syllabi  contain  nearly 
all  the  material  that  is  found  in  the  syllabus  which  is  used 
in  the  systematic  course,  and,  strange  to  say,  the  experi- 
enced teachers  constituting  the  informal  classes  usually  say 
that  they  would  have  preferred  to  have  the  course  conducted 
in  a  formal,  systematic  way  with  the  syllabus  given  to  them 
at  the  beginning.  In  spite  of  this  testimony  I  continue  to  be- 
lieve that  for  experienced  teachers  who  have  had  introductory 


514  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

courses  in  education  the  informal  discussions  based  on  ob- 
servations and  leading  to  well-organized  principles  are  supe- 
rior. The  great  objections  to  such  courses  are  that  they  get 
nowhere  in  particular,  leave  matters  in  the  air  generally,  and 
waste  time  in  attempting  to  "  discover  "  principles.  These  ob- 
jections are  avoided,  however,  by  (i)  definite  direction  and  con- 
trol by  the  instructor,  (2)  the  progressive  organization  of  syllabi, 
and  (3)  considerable  assigned  reading  at  points  where  it  applies. 

Printed  scheme  saves  time  but  must  be  used  intelligently. 
—  In  connection  with  the  formal  introductory  course  in  the 
principles  of  method  I  have  found  it  useful  to  print  a  list  of 
points  or  questions  to  be  used  as  a  partial  basis  for  reports 
upon  lessons  observed.  This  outline,  which  is  printed  below, 
may  also  be  used  in  connection  with  observations  and  dis- 
cussions with  practice  teachers.  In  order  that  the  observa- 
tion of  the  individual  pupils  constituting  a  practice  group  may 
be  definitely  provided  for  and  organized,  a  list  of  questions 
for  this  purpose  was  prepared  by  Professor  F.  N.  Freeman 
and  is  also  printed  below.  The  outlines  may  be  used  in  a 
variety  of  ways  and  modified  to  suit  local  conditions.  It  is 
essential  that  the  instructor  make  clear  to  students  just  how 
he  expects  the  observations  to  be  made  and  in  just  what  way 
the  outline  for  observation  is  to  be  used.  As  a  routine  device 
it  saves  time  and  energy,  but  it  cannot  take  the  place  of 
intelligent  adaptation  and  direction  by  the  instructor. 

In  the  case  of  observations  in  high  school,  prospective 
teachers  are  usually  most  interested  in  observing  lessons  in 
the  special  subjects  which  they  are  planning  to  teach.  This 
often  necessitates  organizing  observations  by  individuals  or 
small  groups  instead  of  by  the  whole  class.  In  the  case  of 
nearly  all  the  old-established  subjects,  however,  it  is  well  for 
the  prospective  teacher  to  remember  that  in  most  high-school 
positions  he  may  be  called  upon  to  teach  any  one  of  several 
subjects ;  hence  he  may  observe  to  advantage  along  a  num- 
ber of  lines. 


ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING     515 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ORGANIZING  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

The  following  outlines  are  printed  in  order  to  provide 
teachers  and  students  with  a  definite  starting  point  for  the 
observation  of  children  and  of  teaching. 

OBSERVATION  OF  PUPILS 

I.  Physical  differences.  —  i.  Age  of  pupil  for  his  grade.  2.  Size 
of  pupil  for  his  age.  3.  Degree  of  physical  maturity  (change  of 
voice,  etc.)  in  comparison  with  others  in  class.  4.  Weight,  color  of 
skin,  manner  (active  or  languid,  etc.),  as  indications  of  nutrition  and 
health.  5.  Pronounced  growth  of  abnormalities,  as  asymmetry  of 
head,  protruding  teeth  excessively  large  or  small  head,  etc.  6.  Pos- 
ture sitting  and  standing  and  character  of  movements  as  indicating 
degree  of  neuromuscular  control.  7.  Sensory  normality  —  visual 
and  auditory.  Evidence  of  nearsightedness  or  eyestrain  from  far- 
sightedness or  astigmatism .  Evidence  of  inability  to  hear  well — inat- 
tentiveness,  slowness  of  response,  or  strain  of  attention.  8.  Evidence 
of  undue  fatigue,  nervousness,  chorea,  stuttering,  or  stammering. 

//.  Mental  differences. —  i.  Mental  quickness.  2.  Accuracy. 
3.  Sustained  or  flighty  attention.  4.  Degree  of  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm. 5.  Degree  of  initiative.  6.  Unusual  deficiency  or  ability  in 
judgment  and  reasoning.  7.  Mental  energy. 

///.  Social  and  moral  characteristics.  —  i .  Fairness  and  dispo- 
sition to  cooperate.  2.  Aggressiveness  or  meekness.  3.  Boldness 
or  shyness.  4.  Self-confidence  or  self-depreciation.  5.  Temper. 

6.  Degree  of  thoroughness,  carefulness,  persistence  shown  in  work. 

7.  Obedience.    8.  Honesty  and  truthfulness. 

OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING 

The  following  outline  is  based  on  the  topics  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapters.  In  answering  the  questions,  students 
should  not  write  simply  yes  or  no,  but  should  describe  the 
situation  in  the  light  of  the  question  under  consideration. 
In  some  cases  single  questions  may  serve  as  the  basis  for 
prolonged  discussion  in  the  class.  In  writing  a  report  based 


5l6  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

on  certain  paragraphs  in  the  outline  it  is  well  to  write  to  the 
general  point  of  each  paragraph  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  cover 
the  detailed  questions,  but  not  to  give  a  separate  answer  for 
each  question  or  item  in  the  paragraph.  Such  a  report  should 
contain  concrete  evidence  for  each  point. 

I.  The  physical  situation.  —  Note  the  following  aspects  of  the 
room:  i.  Lighting.  2.  Ventilation.  3.  Temperature.  4.  Seating. 
5.  Equipment  and  apparatus.  6.  Cleanliness.  7.  Decoration. 

//  The  routine  factors  in  ^management.  —  Note  the  following 
from  the  standpoint  of  economy  of  time  and  energy :  i .  Getting 
started.  2.  Taking  attendance  and  tardiness.  3.  Handling  mate- 
rials, including  use  of  monitors.  4.  Necessity  and  means  of  discipline. 

III.  What  the  teacher  was  trying  to  accomplish,  that  is,  the  aim. 
—  i.  What  was  it  ?  2.  Was  it  appropriate  or  worth  while  ?  3.  Was 
it  definite  ?  clearly  obvious  to  an  observer  ?  4.  Were  the  pupils 
clearly  aware  of  it?  5.  Was  the  lesson  controlled  by  it?  6.  Was  it 
definitely  achieved  ? 

IV.  The  subject  matter.  —  i .  What  was  it  ?  2.  What  was  its  social 
or  applied  value  ?  3.  Did  it  center  around  a  few  definite  large  topics 
or  principles  or  was  it  "  scattering  "  ?  4.  Was  there  a  clear  appre- 
ciation by  the  teacher  of  the  relative  value  of  the  various  parts  ? 
5.  Was  the  subject  as  a  whole  organized  logically  in  terms  of  itself, 
or  psychologically  in  terms  of  the  learner  ? 

V.  The  type  of  learning  involved  in  the  lesson.  —  The  following 
paragraphs  (A  to  F*}  relate  to  special  types  of  learning,  any  one  of 
which  may  be  predominant  in  a  lesson  that  has  been  observed. 
That  is,  the  lesson  may  have  been  organized  primarily  to  develop 
motor  skill,  or  to  build  up  associations  of  ideas,  or  to  solve  problems, 
etc.    For  each  type  of  learning  special  questions  of  method  need 
to  be  considered,  some  of  which  are  suggested  in  paragraphs  A  to  F. 

A.  Motor  learning.  —  If  the  process  was  primarily  one  of  acquir- 
ing motor  skill  or  motor  control  (for  example,  writing,  manual  training, 
gymnastics,  vocal  music,  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language): 

1 .  Did  the  pupils  have  a  clear  idea  of  what  they  were  to  attempt  ? 

2.  Did  the  teacher  depend  on  imitation  or  descriptive  directions  to 
give  the  idea  ?  3.  Did  he  emphasize  a  special  method  or  way  of 
doing  the  thing  ?  4.  Did  he  concentrate  the  pupils'  attention  on  the 


ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING     517 

form  of  the  movement  or  on  the  objective  results  produced  ?  5.  Did 
he  give  separate  drill  on  the  elementary  movements  or  provide  only 
for  drill  upon  complex  movements  ?  6.  Did  he  tend  to  make  the  pu- 
pils self-critical  or  to  have  them  depend  upon  him  for  criticism  ?  Com- 
pare p.  E  76  of  Exercises  for  "  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High  Schools" 

B.  Modern  foreign   languages. —  i.  What   was    the   apparent 
aim,  conversational  or  reading  ability  ?  2.  How  many  new  mean- 
ings,  idioms,   usages,  were  introduced  in  the  lesson  ?    3.  What 
part  did  English  symbols  play  in  the  teaching  ?  4.  Did  the  teacher 
use  any  objects,  models,  sketches,  charts,  texts,  or  mimeographed 
series?  If  so,  for  what  apparent  purpose?  5.  Did  he  demonstrate 
or  dramatize  any  meaning?  of  verbs?  adjectives?  what?   6.  Were 
any  meanings  conveyed  by  synonyms,  opposites,  contrast,  para- 
phrasing ?    7 .  Was  it  necessary  at  any  time  to  resort  to  transla- 
tion ?  8.  What   evidence  was  there   of  careful   planning   in   the 
conversational   exercises  ?   9.  What   part  did  the   pupils  take  in 
the  work  ?  10.  (a)  Were  phonetics  used  ?  (b}  Were  special  phonetic 
symbols  used  ?  If  so,  specify  and  evaluate.  «, 

C.  Drill.  —  If  the  teaching  was  primarily  a  process  of  fixing 
either  motor  or  ideational  connections  that  had  already  been  started 
(for  example,  flash  work  in  multiplication  and  in  learning  vocabu- 
laries, acquiring  speed  in  writing) :  i .  Was  the  drill  premature ;  that 
is,  was  it  started  before  sufficient  care  had  been  taken  to  assure 
correct  connections  ?  2.  Did  the  students  enter  into  it  with  zeal  and 
concentration?   3.  Was  it  concentrated  upon  the  connections  to 
be  fixed  or  was  time  wasted  on  accessories  ?  4.  Was  it  continued 
too  long  ? 

D.  Reasoning.  —  If  the  process  was  primarily  one  of  problem- 
solving  or  reasoning  (for  example,  in  mathematics,  science,  thought 
work  in  history  and  literature) :    i .  Did  the  pupils  really  solve  the 
problems  or  did  they  reproduce  some  other  person's  solution  ? 
2.  Did  the  teacher  succeed  in  assisting  pupils  to  do  their  own  reason- 
ing instead  of  doing  it  for  them  ?  3.  Were  they  stimulated  (a)  to 
make  a  careful  and  thorough  analysis  of  the  whole  situation  ?  (b) 
to  examine  critically  each  suggestion  or  element,  to  determine  its 
bearing  on  the  question  ?  (<r)  to  keep  the  main  problem  clearly  in 
mind  and  to  check  irrelevant  thoughts  and  wanderings?  (</)  to 
arrange,  compare,  and  organize  their  ideas  ?  (e)  to  express  tentative 


5i8  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

conclusions  or  summaries  from  time  to  time  as  a  measure  of  the 
progress  they  had  made  ?  (/")  to  check  and  verify  their  tentative 
conclusions  by  seeing  if  they  "  worked  "  in  other  cases  or  by  refer- 
ring to  standard  authorities  ?  4.  If  the  instruction  was  devoted 
primarily  to  the  acquisition  of  certain  abstract  and  general  mean- 
ings :  (a)  Were  familiar  examples  studied  in  sufficient  detail  to  pro- 
vide an  adequate  basis  of  real  experience  ?  (fr)  Were  the  students 
given  sufficient  opportunity  to  investigate,  examine,  and  analyze? 
(c)  Was  the  definition  or  generalization  obtained  through  persistent 
generalizing  and  formulating  by  the  students  ? 

E.  Enjoyment.  —  If  the  process  was  primarily  one  of  acquiring 
habits  of  enjoyment  (for  example,  in  music,  literature,  contempla- 
tion of  graphic  and  plastic  art  and  natural  scenery,  participation  in 
sports  and  games)  :  i.  Was  the  enjoyment  primarily  of  the  contem- 
plative or  of  the  active  and  u  participative  "  type  ?  2.  Was  it  based 
on  the  relatively  common,  primitive  reactions  to  rhythm,  color,  story, 
melody,  etc.  or  on  the  rarer  reactions  to  the  technique  of  the  artist 
or  expert  ?  3.  Did  the  students  really  "  have  a  good  time  "  ?  4.  Did 
the  teacher  tend  to  use  the  same  method  as  would  be  used  in  study- 
ing "  intellectual "    lessons,    as   in   geography,    law,    psychology, 
mathematics,  etc.  ? 

F.  Expression.  —  If  the  process  was  primarily  training  in  expres- 
sion (for  example,  oral  and  written  composition,  dramatization, 
drawing)  :   i .  Did  it  emphasize  most  the  content  side  (that  is,  what 
the  pupil  had  to  communicate)  or  the  form  side  (for  example,  lin- 
guistic forms)?  2.  Was  a  real  audience  situation  created,  that  is, 
the  pupil  with  something  to  communicate  and  an  audience  to  which 
it  would  be  significant?  3.  Was  the  content  selected  from  the  broader 
fields  of  human  experience  or  from  the  narrower  field  of  literary 
expression  and  other  phases  of  artistic  expression  ?    4.  Was  the 
emphasis  placed  on  giving  pupils  command  of  expressional  tools 
for  everyday  purposes  or  for  artistic  and  technical  purposes  ? 

/</".  Incentives,  motives,  interest,  attention.  —  i.  Was  there  appre- 
ciation by  the  teacher  of  the  economy  in  learning  that  comes  from 
spontaneous  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  ?  2.  If  the  pupils  were 
inattentive,  what  was  the  explanation  ?  3.  If  interested,  was  the 
interest  which  was  secured  due  to  (a)  the  subject  matter  itself,  (fr)  the 
teacher's  personality,  (c)  tricks  or  devices  in  method  (for  example, 


ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING      519 

sugar-coating)  ?  4.  Upon  what  instincts  did  the  attention  depend 
(fear  of  physical  pain,  fear  of  social  disapproval  or  desire  for  ap- 
proval, emulation,  curiosity,  play,  physical  activity,  manipulation, 
communication,  cooperation)?  5.  What  interests  were  manifested 
which  are  especially  characteristic  of  pupils  of  the  age  observed  ? 
6.  Were  the  children  attentive  because  they  had  been  taught  the 
habit  of  being  attentive  as  a  duty  ? 

VII.  Provision  for  individual  differences.  —  i.  What    obvious 
evidence  was  there  of  differences  in  mental  capacity  ?  2.  Any  evi- 
dence of  fast  pupils  marking  time  or  slow  pupils  being  dragged 
along?  3.  Any  provision  to  vary  the  pace,  intensity,  or  quality  of 
the  work  to  provide  for  individual  differences — for  example,  (a)  fast 
pupils  excused  from  participating  in  the  recitation  and  given  special 
seat  work ;  (£)  special  contributions  by  faster  pupils  ;  (c)  class  sub- 
divided into  groups  proceeding  at  different  rates  or  given  different 
work  ;  (</)  special  instruction  for  slow  pupils  ? 

VIII.  Organization  of  the  studying.  —  i.  Was  care  taken  in 
making  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  to  be  studied  ?  2.  Did  it  pro- 
vide definite  problems  so  that  the  pupils  understood  exactly  what 
they  were  expected  to  do  ?  3.  Any  special  attempt  to  arouse  interest 
in  the  assigned  work  ?   4.  Any  anticipation  of  difficulties  by  the 
teacher?  5.  Any  preliminary  treatment  by  lecture  or  conversation  ? 
6.  Any  supervised  study  ?  How  much  ?  How  organized  ? 

IX.  lecturing.  —  i .  Did  the  teacher  contribute  anything  by  lec- 
turing? 2.  How  much?  3.  Formal  or  informal?  4.  Was  it  neces- 
sary ?  5.  Was  it  justified  ?  6.  Did  the  pupils  take  notes  ? 

X.  Material  from  books.  —  i .   Were  textbooks  used  ?   one  or 
several  ?    2.  What  was  the  character  of  the  recitation  ?  (a)  repe- 
tition of  the  text  ?   (Ji)  explanation  of  difficulties  ?    (c)  interpreta- 
tion ?  (ft)  amplification  or  supplementing  ?  (e)  criticizing  ?  3.  Were 
reference  books  used  ?  (a)  as  a  primary  source  of  information  ? 
(^)  for  training  in  library  work  ?  4.  Was  there  an  economical  sys- 
tem of  assignments  for  reference  work  (syllabus,  mimeographed  out- 
lines, exact  page  references)  ?  5.  Was  there  an  economical  system 
of  getting  at  references  (duplicate  copies,  reserve  shelves,  skilled 
attendants)  ?  6.  Were  notebooks  on  readings  required  and  used  so 
as  to  economize  time  of  pupils  and  teachers?  7.  Were  bibliog- 
raphies prepared  by  pupils  ?   8.  (a)  Did  pupils  make  contributions 


520  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

from  individual  reading?  (£)  Were  these  so  organized  as  to  give 
training  in  continuous  oral  expression  ? 

XI.  Laboratory  work.  —  i.  Was  it  primarily  a  process  of  dis- 
covery or  a  process  of  illustrating  something  already  studied  ? 

2.  Did  the  interest  center  in  the  process  of  manipulation  or  in  the 
scientific  principle  involved  ?  3.  Did  the  pupils  understand  the  prin- 
ciple involved  ?  4.  (a)  Was  it  demonstration  work  by  the  teacher 
or  individual  work  by  pupils?  (b)  Compare  the  economy  in  the 
former  with  the  training  secured  in  the  latter,  and  decide  which 
method  would  be  better  in  the  case  observed.  5.  (a)  What  sort  of 
manual  and  notebooks  were  used  ?  (b)  Discuss  their  value. 

XII.  Conversational  methods  (sometimes  vaguely  called  "  develop- 
ment "  methods].  —  The  term  refers  here  to  lessons  in  which  mate- 
rial is  recalled  from  past  experience  through  a  process  of  mutual 
give  and  take  by  pupils  and  teacher,   i.  Would  a  lecture  or  text- 
book or  reference  treatment  of  the  topic  have  been  better  ?  2 .  Why 
was  the  conversational  treatment  used  ?  3.  Was  it  economical  ? 

4.  Did  it  sufficiently  enrich  the  experience  of  the  children  ?  5.  Did 
it  tend  to  wander  from  the  topic  ? 

XIII.  Questioning.  —  i .  (a)  Did  the  class  exercise  call  for  rapid- 
fire  questioning  or  slow,  thoughtful  questioning  ?  (£)  Was  the  pace 
adapted  to  the  thought  movement  required?  2.  Did  it  seem  that 
the  teacher  had  carefully  prepared  the  main  central  questions  ? 

3.  Did  the  questions  elicit  a  thoughtful  response  from  the  members 
of  the  class  ?  4.  Did  all  pupils  feel  responsible  for  every  question  ? 

5.  Were  the  questions  fairly  distributed  so  that  many  pupils  were 
called  on  ?  6.  Was  the  teacher  skilled  in  tactful  commendation  or 
reproval  which  was  adapted  to  each  pupil's  needs  ?  7.  Did  he  make 
the  recitation  a  place  for  group  thought  or  did  he  waste  time  in 
pursuing  or  helping  individuals  ? 

XIV.  Testing  results.  —  i.  Was  there  evidence  that  the  pupils 
were  held  strictly  responsible  for  outside  preparation  ?  2 .  Was  the 
testing  of  their  preparation  set  apart  or  mixed  in  with  the  other 
phases  of  the  recitation  ?  3.  Were  students  kept  informed  of  how 
they  were  succeeding  or  failing?  4.  Did   the  teacher  simply  test 
whether  they  had  learned  their  lessons  or  did  he  test  also  their 
ability  to  interpret  and  apply  ? 


ORGANIZED  OBSERVATION  OF  TEACHING     521 

SAMPLE  DIRECTIONS  FOR  FIVE  REPORTS 

The  following  directions  suggest  the  way  in  which  an  in- 
structor may  organize  a  specific  number  of  observations  based 
on  the  above  outline. 

/.  General  directions.  —  In  addition  to  the  specific  directions  for 
the  several  reports  given  below,  each  report  should  contain  the  fol- 
lowing items :  i.  (a)  subject  and  topic  observed,  (^)  place,  (c)  grade, 
(</)  day  and  hour,  (<?)  name  of  teacher.  2.  Your  general  impressions 
of  the  skill  shown  by  the  teacher  observed.  3.  A  brief  comparison 
of  the  teaching  observed  with  the  way  you  were  taught  the  same 
subject.  4.  Any  new  helpful  ideas  of  method  which  you  derived 
from  the  observation. 

//  Specific  directions  for  the  several  reports.  —  In  addition  to  the 
general  directions  noted  above,  follow  the  special  directions  for  each 
report  given  below. 

Report  No.  i.  Answer  the  questions  in  paragraphs  I,  II,  and 
III  on  page  516  and  in  one  of  the  paragraphs  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  or  F 
on  pages  516-518. 

Report  No.  2.  Answer  the  questions  in  one  of  the  paragraphs 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  or  F  on  pages  516-518,  and  also  answer  the 
questions  in  paragraph  VI  on  pages  518-519. 

Report  No.  3.  Answer  the  questions  in  paragraph  VII  and 
also  in  one  of  the  following  paragraphs  on  pages  519-520  — 
VIII,  X,  XI,  or  XII. 

Report  No.  4.  Give  an  account  of  the  whole  lesson  arranged  as 
a  lesson  plan  according  to  the  directions  given  on  pages  484- 
487.  For  this  purpose,  be  sure  to  see  a  lesson  that  contains  con- 
siderable subject  matter  and  questioning. 

Also  answer  the  questions  in  paragraph  XIII  on  page  520. 

Report  No.  5.  Follow  the  same  directions  as  for  report  No.  4. 

///  Order  of  reports.  —  These  reports  need  not  be  submitted 
in  the  above  order,  although  this  order  is  usually  advisable. 

IV.  Style  of  report.  —  In  answering  the  questions  in  the  para- 
graphs referred  to,  write  to  the  general  point  of  each  paragraph 
and  in  such  a  way  as  to  cover  the  detailed  questions,  but  do  not 
try  to  write  a  separate  answer  for  each  question  or  item  in  the 


$22  TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

paragraph.    In  other  words,  write  a  unified  paragraph  containing 
many  points.    Give  concrete  evidence  for  most  points. 

Use  theme  paper.  Fold  lengthwise  and  put  your  name  and  the 
number  of  the  report  on  the  outside. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Observation  of  children. —  i.  KIRKPATRICK,  E.  A.  Fundamentals 
of  Child  Study.  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1903.)  P.  358. 

2.  WARNER,  F.  The  Study  of  Children.  (The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1897.)  P.  99. 

Observation  of  teaching.  —  3.  BAGLEY,  W.  C.  Classroom  Manage- 
ment. (The  Macmillan  Company,  1907.)  Pp.  275-278. 

4.  WHIPPLE,  G.  M.  Guide  to  High  School  Observation.  (C.  W. 
Bardeen,  1908.) 

THE  LAST  WORD 

For  "  The  Last  Word  "  concerning  "  Public  Service  and  the  Gospel 
of  Relaxation,"  see  Exercises  for  "  Methods  of  Teaching  in  High 

Schools,'1'1  pp.  E25I-E2S7. 


INDEX 


Abstractions,  acquiring,  205-229 

Academies,  history  of,  8 

Accessories,  time  wasted  on,  in 
drilling,  158-160 

Adams,  J.,  on  mental  backgrounds, 
305-307  ;  on  step  of  preparation, 
308-310;  quoted,  410;  on  con- 
versational method,  441  ;  on  So- 
cratic  method,  443 

Addams,  Jane,  on  recreation,  234 

Adolescence,  reasoning  ability  in, 
331  ;  interests  during,  360 

/Esthetic  emotions,  psychological 
analysis  of,  244 

Age,  influence  of,  on  learning,  Chap. 
XIII,  314-335 

Aims  of  instruction.  See  Purposes 
of  instruction 

Algebra,  abilities  in,  373,  374 

Analysis  in  reasoning,  188 

Apperception,  Chap.  XII,  296-313 

Appreciation,  meaning  of,  242 

Arithmetic,  abilities  in,  373 

Assignment  of  lesson,  394,  447 

Associating  symbols  and  meanings, 
96;  Chap.  VII,  122-141 

Associations,  automatizing  of,  Chap. 
VIII,  142-168  ;  directions  for  ob- 
serving, 517 

Attention,  in  acquiring  skill,  99, 101 ; 
influence  of,  on  practice,  149-153; 
in  whole  method  of  memorizing, 
1 58 ;  spontaneous  and  forced, 
341-344;  instinctive,  344-358; 
habitual,  358-360;  and  efficient 
study,  403-41 1 ;  directions  for  ob- 
serving, 518 

Audience  and  motive  in  expression, 
278,  281-284 

Automatizing  associations,  Chap. 
VIII,  142-168 

Ayers,  L.  P.,  on  measuring  results, 
502 


Bagley,  W.  C.,  on  routine  and  judg- 
ment in  management,  28-31  ;  on 
Socratic  method,  446 

Bagster-Collins,  E.  W.,  on  phonetic 
methods,  116;  on  the  Gouin 
method  of  learning  German,  132- 
135  ;  on  grammatical  training,  137 

Bair,  J.  H.,  on  moving  the  ears, 
102 

Baker,  F.  T.,  on  teaching  English 
classics,  259;  on  qualifications  of 
teacher  of  English,  277  ;  on  cor- 
recting themes,  284 

Barnard,  A.  F.,  his  method  of  using 
sources,  38  ;  on  study  questions, 
427 

Batavia  plan,  387,  401 

Beers,  G.  A.,  on  abilities  in  arith- 
metic, 373 

Bibliographical  notes,  on  purposes 
of  instruction,  23,  24;  on  economy 
in  classroom  management,  49; 
on  selection  and  arrangement  of 
subject  matter,  93,  94 ;  on  acquir- 
ing motor  skill,  121 ;  on  associat- 
ing symbols  and  meanings,  140; 
on  practice  or  drill,  166;  on  re- 
flective thinking,  230 ;  on  habits 
of  enjoyment,  267  ;  on  training  in 
expression,  294 ;  on  self-activity 
and  apperception,  312;  on  influ- 
ence of  age  on  learning,  335 ;  on 
interests,  361  ;  on  differences  in 
capacity,  389 ;  on  supervised 
study,  417 ;  on  use  of  books,  435 ; 
on  conversational  method,  448 ; 
on  laboratory  methods,  463 ;  on 
questioning,  474 ;  on  practice 
teaching  and  lesson-planning, 
491  ;  on  measuring  results,  511  ; 
on  organized  observation,  522 

Bibliographical  training,  429-432 

Biology,  type  method  in,  75 


S23 


524 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Bobbitt,  J.  F.,  on  musical  activities, 

240 
Bonser,  F.  G.,  on  reasoning  ability 

of  children,  326 
Book,  W.  F.,  on  correct  practice, 

143;     on    learning    typewriting, 

145-147,  H9-I52 
Books,  use  of,  Chap.  XVII,  418- 

435;  directions  for  observing  use 

of,  519 

Boston,  high  school  established  in,  9 
Boston  Latin  Grammar  School,  4 
Botany,  historical  changes  in,   57  ; 

abstractions  learned  in,  206 
Breslich,  E.  R.,  on  supervised  study, 
397,  398,  406,  414-416;  on  distri- 
bution of  questions,  469 
Briefs,  writing  of,  280,  288  ;  used  in 

oral  reports,  432 

Bryan,  W.  L.,  and  Harter,  N.,  on 
learning  telegraphy,  144,  152 

Chemistry,  example  of  abstraction 
from,  207 ;  laboratory  work  in, 
452 

Children,  directions  for  observing, 

5»S 

Class  instruction  and  differences  in 
capacity,  Chap.  XV,  362-390 

Classics,  introduced  in  English 
classes,  253 ;  methods  of  teach- 
ing, 258-262 

Classroom  management,  Chap.  Ill, 

25-49 
Clearness  in  expression,  training  in, 

280 

Clubs,  departmental,  236 
Colebrook  Academy,  its  adaptation 

to  rural  needs,  61-64 
Collecting  instinct,  353 
Comenius,  J.  A.,  364 
Commendation  and  reproval,  470 
Commensurable  results  in  testing, 

496 

Communication,  356 
Community  needs.    See  Social  needs 
Composition,    grading    papers    in, 

507 ;     Thorndike-Hillegas    scale 

in,  508.   See  also  Expression 
Concrete  to  abstract,  217 
Content  and  form  in  composition, 

284 
Contribution  recitations,  288 


Conversational  methods,  Chap. 
XVIII,  436-447 ;  directions  for 
observing,  520 

Cooperation,  in  training  in  expres- 
sion, 288  ;  instinct  of,  356 

Courtis,  S.  A.,  on  speed  in  reading, 

373 
Critical  attitude  in  reasoning,  193- 

198 
Cubberly,  E.  P.,  on  liberal  versus 

vocational  purposes,  13-15 
Curiosity,  352 

Dancing,  237 

Dearborn,  W.  F.,  on  mirror  writing, 
104-106;  on  memorizing  vocabu- 
laries, 159 

Deduction,  229  note 

Definitions,  value  of,  220-225 

De  Garmo,  C.,  on  history  teaching, 
174;  on  hypotheses,  190 

Details,  correct  use  of,  76-78 

Development  method.  See  Conver- 
sational method 

Dewey,  J.,  his  definition  of  educa- 
tion, 30 ;  on  the  social  point  of 
view,  54-55 ;  on  the  nature  of 
reflective  thinking,  183 ;  on  sus- 
pended conclusion,  194 ;  on  stu- 
dent evaluating  suggestions,  202 ; 
on  method  of  scientific  thinking, 
204;  on  type  method,  216;  on 
concrete  to  abstract,  217;  on  ex- 
pository teaching,  219;  on  ne- 
cessity of  definitions,  222  ;  on 
generalization,  226;  on  induction 
and  deduction,  229  note ;  on  ap- 
perception, 304  ;  on  preparatory 
step,  308 ;  on  reasoning  in  chil- 
dren, 328;  on  laboratory  work,  459 

Differences  in  capacity,  and  class 
instruction,  Chap.  XV,  362-390 

Direct  method  of  learning  a  foreign 
language,  125-141 

Discipline,  43-49 

Distributed  versus  continuous  prac- 
tice, 161-164 

Drama,  enjoyment  of,  263-266 

Drawing,  training  in,  291 

Drill,  Chap.  VIII,  142-168;  ques- 
tioning during,  471;  directions  for 
observing,  517.  See  also  Practice 

Drudgery  in  school,  338 


INDEX 


525 


Ears,  experiments  on  moving  the, 

102 
Ebbinghaus,    H.,    experiments    in 

memorizing,  147;   on  distributed 

practice,  162 
Economics,  textbook  based  on  prob- 

lems in,  171-173,  209-211 
Economy,    in    classroom    manage- 

ment, Chap.  Ill,  25-49  ;  in  learn- 

ing, based  on  interests,  336 
Efficiency  as  an  aim,  16 
Eliot,  C.  W.,  on  literature  in  schools, 

253 

Elliott,  E.  C.,  on  grading  papers,  505 
Emotion.    See    ./Esthetic    emotions 

and  Enjoyment 
Emulation,  345-350 
Encyclopedic  tendency,  72-78 
English    composition,    routine    as- 

pects of,   36-37  ;   varied  courses 

in,  66.    See  also  Expression 
English  Journal,  254 
English  Teachers,  National  Council 

of,  254 
Enjoyment,  as  an  aim  of  instruction, 

17  ;  forming  habits  of,  96;  Chap. 

X,  232-268;  and  self-activity,  299; 
and  preparatory  step,  311  ;  influ- 
ence of  age  on,  332  ;   testing  of, 
499;  directions  for  observing,  518 

Euclid,  history  of  his  "  Elements  of 

Geometry,"  58-59 
Examinations.  See  Measuring  results 
Experiments  on  motor  skill,  99-108 
Expression,  training  in,  97  ;  Chap. 

XI,  269-295  ;    and    self-activity, 
299;  and  preparatory  step,  311; 
influence  of  age  on,  333  ;  testing 
of,  499  ;  directions  for  observing, 


Farnsworth,  C.  H.,  on  unison  sing- 

ing, 239  ;  on  whistling  melodies, 

241 
Fear,  of  physical  pain  as  a  motive, 

348  ;  of  sarcasm,  349 
Feelings,  influence  of,  on  practice, 

148.    See  also  Enjoyment 
Fiction,  reading  of,  254 
First  day,  management  of,  31-33 
Flash  cards  for  drills,  160 
Foreign  language,  learning  pronun- 

ciation of,  1  14-1  18,  1  20  ;  learning 


vocabulary  of,  Chap.  VII,  122- 
141 ;  influence  of  age  in  learning 
a,  318-325;  social  utility  of,  323- 

325 

Form,  and  content  in  composition, 
284 ;  in  motor  skill,  see  Good  form 

Formal  steps.  6i?<?  Herbartian  formal 
steps 

Frankfurt  plan  for  teaching  a  for- 
eign language,  133 

French.   See  Foreign  language 

Galton,  F.,  on  the  nature  of  reflec- 
tive thinking,  182 ;  on  heredity, 
197 

Games,  235 

Garber,  J.  P.,  on  recreation,  234 

Generalization,  226 

Geography,  encyclopedic  method 
in,  72 ;  regional  method  in,  73 ; 
type  method  in,  74 

Geometry,  historical  changes  in, 
57-59 ;  of  doubtful  value,  59 ; 
self-conducting  groups  in,  382 ; 
papers  graded  in,  505 

German.    See  Foreign  language 

Gilbreth,  F.  B.,  his  scheme  of  mo- 
tion study,  106-108 

Good  form  in  motor  skill,  99,  100, 
108,  in,  118 

Good  will  as  an  aim  of  instruction, 

17 

Gouin  method  of  teaching  a  foreign 
language,  130-136 

Grades,  distribution  of,  379 

Grading,  methods  of,  500 

Grammar,  general  ideas  learned  in, 
206 

Grammar  schools.  See  Latin  gram- 
mar schools 

Grammatical  instruction  in  foreign 
language,  136-138 

Greer,  W.  C.,  on  notebooks,  452 

Group  instruction,  381 

Gymnastics,  methods  of  instruction, 
108-111 

Habits,  development  of,  as  an  aim 
of  instruction,  20;  free  the  mind 
for  reasoning,  30-31 ;  of  attention, 
358 ;  of  enjoyment,  see  Associa- 
tion and  Enjoyment 

Handling  materials,  34-41 


526 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Handschin,  C.  H.,  on  the  Gouin 
method  of  teaching  German,  135, 

136 

Harris,  W.  T.,  on  simultaneous  ver- 
sus individual  instruction,  365- 
366;  on  conversational  method, 

438 

Harter,  N.  See  Bryan,  W.  L.,  and 
Harter,  N. 

Health,  as  an  aim  of  instruction, 
18-19;  influenced  by  ventilation 
and  lighting,  41 

Herbart,  J.  F.,  on  interests  as  aims, 
22  ;  on  psychological  versus  logi- 
cal organization,  79 ;  on  apper- 
ception, 307 

Herbartian  formal  steps,  229  note, 
439 ;  in  lesson  planning,  480 

Herbertson,  A.  J.,  on  regional 
method  in  geography,  73 

Heredity,  debate  concerning,  197 

Herts,  A.  M.,  on  children's  theater, 
265 

High  schools,  history  of,  9 

Hillegas,  M.  B.,  on  composition 
scale,  508 

History,  changes  in  social  value  of, 
55-57 ;  for  vocational  students, 
66 ;  overemphasis  on  early  stages 
in,  69 ;  encyclopedic  method  in, 
74;  problem-solving  in,  173-176 

Hoadley  on  laboratory  work,  455 

Hofmann,  J.,  on  piano  playing,  in, 
164-166 

Home  study,  392-397,  415 

Hornbrook  on  laboratory  method 
in  algebra,  387 

Hypothesis,  function  of,  in  reason- 
ing, 190 

Ideals  as  an  aim  of  instruction,  20- 
22 

Imitation,  99,  108,  119 

Incentives,  directions  for  observ- 
ing, 518.  See  also  Attention  and 
Interests 

Indirect  versus  direct  method  of 
learning  a  language,  124-126 

Individual  differences,  and  class  in- 
struction, Chap.  XV,  362-390 ; 
directions  for  observing,  519 

Induction,  229  note 

Information  an  important  aim,  19 


Instincts  as  the  basis  of  attention, 
344-358 

Interests,  as  an  aim  of  instruction, 
22  ;  influence  of,  on  practice,  149- 
153;  and  economy  in  learning, 
Chap.  XIV,  336-361  ;  involved 
in  studying,  409;  directions  for 
observing,  518 

James,  W.,  on  relation  of  habit  and 
reason,  30-3 1 ;  on  reflective  think- 
ing, 183;  on  analysis  in  reason- 
ing, 189  ;  on  teacher  neglecting 
personal  experiences,  218  ;  on  use 
of  abstractions,  227 

Jesuits,  their  use  of  emulation,  346 

Judd,  C.  H.,  on  teaching  of  science, 
86 

Judgment  aspects  in  practice  teach- 
ing, 476 

Juggling  balls,  100—102 

Keatinge,  M.  W.,  on  problem- 
solving  in  history,  174;  on  books 
as  apparatus,  425 

Kennedy,  John,  and  the  Batavia 
scheme,  388 ;  on  the  Batavia 
plan,  401 

Kepler's  methods  of  scientific  think- 
ing, 180 

Kester,  F.  E.,  on  laboratory  methods, 

45° 

Kinetoscopic  pictures  used  in  ac- 
quiring skill,  106-108 

Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.,  on  correct  prac- 
tice, 143;  on  influence  of  results 
of  an  act,  148  ;  on  memorizing  at 
different  ages,  319 

Laboratory  methods,  routine  of,  35 ; 
Chap.  XIX,  449-464 ;  directions 
for  observing,  520 

Lancasterian  monitorial  system,  364 

Language,  abstraction  in,  205.  See 
also  Foreign  language 

La  Salle,  J.  B.,  and  simultaneous  in- 
struction, 364 

Latin,  practical  value  of,  8 

Latin  grammar  schools,  history  of,  7 

Learner,  organization  of  subject 
matter  in  terms  of  the,  78-94 

Learning,  types  of,  Chap.  V,  95- 
97 


INDEX 


527 


Lecture  method,  419,  420;  direc- 
tions for  observing,  519 

Lesson-planning,  Chap.  XXI,  475- 
491 

Leuba,  J.  H.,  on  distributed  practice 
in  handwriting,  161 

Library,  economical  routine  of,  38 ; 
reading  in,  426 

Lighting  of  schoolrooms,  42 

Literature,  relative  values  in,  70; 
aesthetic  responses  to,  244-250; 
teaching  of,  for  enjoyment,  253- 
263 

Logical  organization,  versus  psy- 
chological organization,  78-94 ; 
meaning  of,  90-92 

Luther  on  purposes  of  instruction,  7 

Lyon,  D.  O.,  on  distributed  practice, 
162 

McMurry,  F.  and  C.,  on  conversa- 
tional method,  439— 441  ;  on  lesson 
plans,  481-483 

Magazines,  reading  of,  256 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.,  on  relation  of  moral- 
ity and  art,  250 

Manipulation,  354 

Mann,  C.  R.,  on  laboratory  work, 
456,  460-462 

Manual  training,  shop  routine  in,  36 

Marshall,  L.  C.,  Wright,  C.W.,  and 
Field,  J.  A.,  their  textbook  in 
economics,  171-173,  209-211,  231 

Mathematics,  adaptation  of,  to  rural 
needs,  63,  64 ;  adaptation  of,  to 
needs  of  students,  81-85;  abstrac- 
tions learned  in,  205,  206.  See  also 
Algebra  and  Geometry 

Measuring  the  results  of  teaching, 
Chap.  XXII,  492-511 

Memorizing,  Ebbinghaus's  experi- 
ments on,  147  ;  use  of  method  of 
recall  in,  1 53-1 54  ;  whole  and  part 
methods  in,  154-158;  of  vocabu- 
laries, 1 59  ;  testing  of,  498 

Mental  activity  instinctive,  350-352 

Meumann,  E.,  on  whole  and  part 
methods  of  memorizing,  156 

Michelson,  A.  A.,  on  relative  values 
in  physics,  71 

Mills,  J.  E.,  on  laboratory  work,  452 

Mimeographing  class  outlines,  39 

Mirror  writing,  104-106 


Monitorial  instruction,  371 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  on  abilities  in  alge- 
bra, 373.  374 

Moore,  E.  H.,  on  reconstructed 
mathematics,  81 

Morality,  relation  of,  to  art,  250-253 

Motion  study,  Gilbreth's  scheme  of, 
106-108 

Motive  in  training  in  expression,  278 

Motor  skill,  96;  Chap.  VI,  98-121  ; 
practice  in  acquiring,  Chap.  VIII, 
142-168 ;  self-activity  in,  297  ;  and 
preparatory  step,  310;  influence 
of  age  in  acquiring,  315-318;  in 
laboratory  work,  458;  testing  of, 
499  ;  directions  for  observing,  516 

Music,  training  in  technique  of,  1 1 1- 
114;  enjoyment  of,  238-242 

Needs  of  pupils,  78-94.  See  also  So- 
cial needs 

Newton,  I.,  his  law  of  gravitation, 
196 

Normal-frequency  surface,  377 

Notebooks,  routine  of,  39 ;  in  chem- 
istry, 45 i -454 

Observation  of  teaching,  should  sup- 
plement study  of  text,  3;  direc- 
tions for,  Chap.  XXIII,  512-522 

Opinion  versus  science,  504 

Oral  expression,  271,  285 

Oral  instruction  in  foreign  language, 
128-141 

Oral  reports,  427-434 

Oral  tests  versus  written,  495 

Order.    See  Discipline 

Organizing  material  of  thought,  198 

Outlining,  use  of,  in  studying,  407, 
410 

Part  and  whole  methods  of  memoriz- 
ing, 154-158 

Periodicals,  reading  of,  256 

Perry  movement  in  teaching  mathe- 
matics, 8 1 

Personality  of  teacher,  influence  of, 
on  discipline,  45-48 

Pestalozzian  oral  instruction,  438 

.Phonetic  instruction  in  pronuncia- 
tion, i 14-1 18 

Physical  situation,  directions  for  ob- 
serving, 516 


528 


TEACHING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Physics,  value  of  exact  measurement 
in,  71;  abstractions  learned  in, 
206;  laboratory  work  in,  450,  455, 

456 

Piano  playing,  in,  164-166 
Plateaus  in  practice  curves,  145-153 
Practice,  Chap.  VIII,  142-168 ;  prin- 
ciples of,  applied  to  composition, 
286 ;    and   self-activity,    298 ;    in 
laboratory  work,  458  ;  apply  prin- 
ciples  of,   in   practice   teaching, 
477-479.    See  also  Drill 
Practice  teaching,  Chap.  XXI,  475- 

49 i 

Preparatory  step,  307-312 

Problem-solving,  170-205.  See  Re- 
flective thinking 

Program  card  for  studying,  403- 
411 

Pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language, 
training  in,  114-118 

Psychological  versus  logical  organi- 
zation, 78-94 

Psychology,  overemphasis  on  early 
parts  of,  69  ;  learning  abstractions 
in,  208 

Pueblo  plan,  379 

Purpose  of  lesson,  307—312;  direc- 
tions for  observing,  516 

Purposes  of  instruction,  Chap.  II, 
1-24 

Pyle,  W.  H.,  on  whole  and  part 
methods  of  memorizing,  155;  on 
distributed  practice,  161 

Questioning,   in   supervised   study, 
413;  Chap.  XX,  465-474;  direc- 
tions for  observing,  520 
Questions  in  lesson  plan,  483 
Quick,  R.  H.,  on  the  Jesuits'  use  of 
emulation,  346 

Reading,  speed  in,  373 

Reasoning,  not  prevented  by  rou- 
tine, 27-31  ;  influence  of  age  on, 
326-332 ;  directions  for  observing, 
517.  See  also  Reflective  thinking 

Reavis,  W.  C.,  on  studying,  395,  396, 
399,  403-405,  4" 

Recall,  use  of,  in  memorizing,  153 

Recitation,  nature  of,  424 ;  contri- 
bution method  in,  427  ;  as  a  place 
for  group  thought,  468 


Reflective  thinking,  96 ;  not  used  in 
mirror  writing,  106;  Chap.  IX, 
169-231;  and  self-activity,  298; 
and  preparatory  step,  308 ;  in  labo- 
ratory work,  459;  mentioned,  41 1, 
424.  See  also  Reasoning 

Relative  values,  67-7 1  ;  sense  of,  in 
questioning,  467 

Richmond,  Indiana,  musical  activi- 
ties in,  240 

Rickard,  G.  E.,  on  supervised  study, 
412 

Ritter,  K.,  on  encyclopedic  method 
in  geography,  72 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  on  encyclopedic 
method  in  history,  75 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  on  psychological 
versus  logical  method,  78 

Routine,  in  classroom  management, 
27-31 ;  in  practice  teaching,  476; 
in  testing,  493 ;  directions  for  ob- 
serving, 516 

Sarcasm  as  a  stimulus,  349 

Sargent,  W.,  on  training  in  drawing, 
291 

Satisfaction,  influence  of,  in  drill,  147 

Schiller,  F.  von,  on  the  drama,  263 

Schmidt,  Lydia,  her  phonetic 
scheme,  117 

Schultze,  A.,  on  teaching  mathemat- 
ics, 8 1  ;  on  solving  geometry 
propositions,  203 

Science,  general  course  in,  85-90 ; 
versus  opinion,  504.  See  also  Lab- 
oratory methods  and  the  names 
of  the  special  sciences 

Science  courses  for  girls,  67 

Scott,  F.  N.,  his  satire  on  teaching 
English  classics,  260 

Search,  P.  W.,  on  individual  and 
class  instruction,  366,  379 

Seats  assigned  to  pupils,  33 

Self-activity,  Chap.  XII,  296-313 

Simultaneous  instruction,  365 

Skill.    See  Motor  skill 

Smith,  D.  E.,  on  history  of  geometry, 
58-59 ;  on  unification  of  mathe- 
matics, 83 

Snap  courses,  in  literature,  262  ;  in 
oral  expression,  285 

Snedden,  D.,  on  purposes  of  small 
high  school,  60 


INDEX 


529 


Social  activities,  236-238 

Social  needs,  determine  selecting 
subject  matter,  53-67  ;  historical 
variation  in,  53-60 ;  vary  between 
communities  and  groups  of  stu- 
dents, 60-67 

Socratic  method,  171,  442-446 

Spencer,  H.,  on  social  needs  and 
English  education,  53-54 ;  on  rela- 
tive values,  68 ;  his  classification 
of  life's  activities,  177 

Sports  and  games,  235 

Starch,  D.,  on  grading  papers,  505 

Statistical  technique,  370 

Stature  of  ten-year-old  boys,  375 

Study.    See  Supervised  study 

Study  questions,  427 

Subject  matter,  selection  and  ar- 
rangement of,  Chap.  IV,  50-94 ; 
mastery  of,  in  lesson-planning, 
482  ;  directions  for  observing,  516 

Suggestion,  part  played  by,  in  rea- 
soning, 187-193 

Supervised  study,  387  ;  Chap.  XVI, 
391-417 ;  directions  for  observing, 

5'9 

Supplementary  reading,  425 
Swift,E.J., on  juggling  balls,  100-102 

Taylor,  D.  C.,  on  vocal  training, 
112-114 

Telegraphy,  experiments  in  learn- 
ing, 144,  152 

Testing  results  of  teaching,  Chap. 
XXII,  492-511;  directions  for 
observing,  520 

Textbooks,  use  of,  421—425 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  on  ultimate  and 
proximate  aims,  16;  on  associa- 
tion, 140;  on  memorizing,  147; 
on  influence  of  interest  in  prac- 
tice, 152;  on  distributed  practice, 
163;  on  search  for  propositions 
in  geometry,  191  ;  on  reasoning 
lessons,  211;  on  aesthetic  emo- 
tions, 244-251  ;  on  individual  dif- 
ferences, 367-377  ;  on  textbooks, 


422-424 ;  on  laboratory  work,  457 ; 
on  science  versus  opinion,  504 ; 
on  composition  scale,  508 
Topics  in  composition  writing,  271- 

277 

Translation  method,  124-126 
Trial-and-error  method,  99,  i  o  i ,  1 02- 

106,  no,  119 

Type  method,  in  geography,  74 ;  in 
biology,  75 ;  in  learning  abstrac- 
tions, 214-217 

Types  of  learning,  Chap.  V,  95-97 
Typewriting,  experiments  in  learn- 
ing, 145-147 

Understanding,  testing  of,  498 
University  of  Chicago,  its  direc- 
tions for  lesson  plans,  484-486; 
its  regulations  for  practice  teach- 
ing, 488 ;  its  directions  for  obser- 
vation, 515 

University  of  Chicago  High  School, 
mathematics  in,  83-85 ;  general 
science  in,  83-89 ;  phonetics  in, 
117  ;  parties  in,  238 

Values.   See  Relative  values 

Ventilation,  41 

Verbalism,  299,  301 

Verification  in  reasoning,  196-198 

Vocabulary  of  a  foreign  language, 

Chap.  VII,  122-141  ;  self-activity 

in  learning  the,  298 
Vocal  training,  112-114 

Washington  Irving  High  School, 
policy  of,  12-13 

Welton,  J.,  on  definitions,  220 

Wendell,  B.,  on  literature  in  peri- 
odicals, 257 

Whewell,  W.,  on  Kepler's  method 
of  thinking,  180 

Whole  and  part  methods  of  memo- 
rizing, 154^158 

Words  and  thought,  299,  301-303 

Written  tests  versus  oral,  495 


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